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you're certificates off. Participation on. Also, you should have access to the power point. So that's all from me. Sign you can take over. Yeah, um, again, As it starts at story goes, take both get the best of us. But a TC is for your view here today we'll have a good knowledge of the story about the different doctors this electric is being recorded will be uploaded X in an exploited fashion online to meddle azelas the slides. You got a link with the feedback form for that and everything. All right, so this we're almost, um, entering the last part of our your anatomy electricity res. So there is a 14 December on. I'll be talking about three more and be bring structures. And we got two more on the 17 in the 21st, and then you're done. So what I would be coming today and is the content of it embryology. Then we'll have a quiz that I'm talking about. The gyra sulk I and the lobes off brain than functional and a bit of the histology of it. And then we'll dive into the depths of the deep brain structures and they will handle the quiz. So in terms of embryology aside mentioned in my brain stem lecture at four weeks of gestation, the neural tube will give three hours apart things. The presence of feel on the medicine Cephalon in the rhombencephalon in the next few weeks off Gestations around week six weeks. Seven. The four brain, which is the presence of will divide really any brain on the interferon. So you've got your telencephalon and you're dying. Cephalon, you're dying. Cephalon is what makes your deeper in structures and your talents. F alone is what makes your, um, cerebral hemispheres. Then, around the 10th week of just a shin, you'll have transitory for Oz's that appear on Last Bill, 1/4 month of the station. The reason they are transitory is because they're eventually replaced by the sulk I of the brain that we know of, but transitory because they're just temporary till the fourth month of the station. And then you have your first identical, identifiable sulk. I like the proper ones that you would see in a brain cadaver. They begin to appear, such as your Calgary I'm sold. I you're single cell counts in your central sulcus, so we'll start off with the quiz. I I appreciate it is only the three of you, so anything any feedback is good. So the first question is how many total gyre I are there in the frontal and temporal lobe combined. So this first place would just be through See your resting knowledge on because all the questions we'll talk about all the answers to follow. So it's just how many total drive out there in the frontal and temporal lobe combined? Yeah, like, you just make a guess when you have a 25% probability of getting it right. So, um, very close. You have three dryer I in the frontal lobe, and you've got three main ones that you need to know off. And you've got three, our main in the temporal lobe. So in total, the three main dryer I are going to be six. There are some other ones that are talking about, but just in Maine, there are six of them. So six next, Which low off the brain is the hippocampus located? Yeah, that's absolutely right Is the temporal lobe. It's on the medial and inferior like basil surface of the temporal lobe on Dallas and altruism cross sections where you can see the hippocampus in detail rights. Um, then this one. What makes up the temporal? A particular, um, is it the silicon sulcus is the super temporal gyrus? Is the inferotemporal gyrus or is it the superior temporal gyrus? Oh, like like, these questions are hot, but I'll be talking about all of them in detail once this way, that's absolutely fine. The answer to your particular is made The temporal, a popular, is made with the superior temporal gyrus and I'll. And I'll tell you why in a second after school and then which cortex is marked in green? Into the into the cortex of the singular cortex is the happiest cortex is the temporal cortex. I won't get to my family, but it's the insulin cortex, just on the undersurface of the temporal and the frontal. A program on that's in Greeley, which I always talk about in the brain structures on. Lastly, this is an extremely harsh one is which low, when effective, causes contralateral neglect, especially off a person's lives I've often seen in stroke patients. When artery supplying go that part of the low what that low is affected is that the frontal lobe is the pride too low the temporal lobe of the occipital lobe. Um, what's worked for me whenever I had questions to on send in a Nasty is to always think about what the function of the question is. So what? The question is basically asking is what is the functional? Each of these lobes? And when that function is disturb you yet contractual neglect. So which lobe has that function? And I'm talking about all of this, But the answer to this would just be price a low. And I'll tell you why. Because that's where your sensory cortexes. Okay, so I'm just in general, you have sold cayenne gyro in your brain in order to increase the surface area of your courses to allow for more gray matter to be packed in the mor in a smaller space. Because the skull is a confined space on the thyroid cartilage is that you see yourself tired for oh so and and it's comically the very from person to person. However fundamentally, this is the this is hardly look the image on the right. The as you can see in the frontal lobe you got three main dryer I in the temporal lobe about three main gyra on. Then that's the parietal lobe that's the occipital or the occipital love on. Then that's this is the lateral surface. Is the medial surface now in more in the next time of more detail about each of these. But this is how I general it looks. If you look at the brain and you on did identify these dry, this fundamental dryer, I, then the patient most likely has this diarrhea or you're not really bad. But I don't assume it's the last of this taste on you have the soul Qaeda sulk, eyes very important terms of demarcation of the lobes. You have the Sylvian Fissure or your lap for a Fisher here, which is not assaulted by the way, but it demarcated front of temporarily but your central southwest here, which demarcated the frontal from the parietal. And you've got many of these cell kinda that separate the brain it for love's. So just as an overview to cover all the high yield part of the brain, this is the Sylvian fissure on any lateral aspect off your candid, very like section. You must be able to identify this one. You can identify. Identify the Sylvian Fissure. It's this fisher between the frontal lobe and the temporal lobe. It's not a soul CAS, and it's also sometimes followed the lateral fisher. So to go back to my question as to what made up the temporal or popular, Um, or popular, um, simply means part of the brain that lies on the Sylvian fissure. So you will have the front. So if you look at the prostate in the brain, you have. This is the Sylvian fissure on the inferior aspect of militant. For a look on the superior aspect, you got the frontal lobe on the posterior aspect about the parietal lobe. So the Sylvian Fissure has three operculum on it. It's got the temporal, a popular the frontal or popular on the parietal, a popular the temporal A particular um on the Sylvian fissure would be your superior temporal gyrus, which is by the name the most superior gyrus of the temporal lobe. As you can see here, this one on the three main on and just like just I showed in this photo here is not always straight lines, as you can see. They're often convoluted on almost self in time in nature. And that's, as I said, goes back to trying to increase the surface area as much as possible. So the three main in this remained dryer I in the temporal lobe. I'll superotemporal dryers your middle temporal gyrus, and you're inferior temporal gyrus. A similar naming convention is present in the frontal lobe. You've got your superior frontal gyrus, your middle frontal gyrus and then your inferior frontal gyrus. So in totally about six main on the temporal frontal lobe combined three each and they all have. They all have the same name in convention. Now, each so two adjacent gyre. I must be separated by a soul CAS. And so between the superior frontal gyrus on the middle frontal gyrus he called the superior frontal sulcus. There is not shown in this picture here, but the middle frontal gyrus often has a middle frontal saltiest going like traversing it. But it's quite uncommon, but it is see and then just inferior to the middle, from two jobs between the between the middle front of the IRS and the inferior frontal gyrus. See what your inferior frontal sulcus So you have three drier and you have three main sulk. I in the frontal lobe on a similar naming convention, occurs in the temporal lobe where, between the superior temporal gyrus on the middle temporal gyrus it for your superior temporal cell casts on between the middle temporal gyrus and inferior temporal gyrus. You've got your inferior. So you got your middle temporal Psaltis, and then underneath or on the basil surface of the brain, you have your inferior temporal sulcus. So that covers the main gyri and salt, as you would see on a lateral aspect of the cadaver. Then, if you if you move back a bit posterially. So if this is all off the frontal lobe, you've just here God, this thing called the pretty central Giles, the pretty central gyrus, gets his name from the midline central soldiers. As you can see the arrow here, this goes all the way from the interim. It's very Fisher all the way down to the Sylvian Fissure, and that's all the central soccer's. And so the gyre I before or preceding the central salt is is called the precentral inch iris. The precentral drives is very important because That's where your PSA matter mortar cortex is located. And then and the anterior to the precentral gyrus. You have your pre central saltus. And then, as I mentioned, you have your central soldiers here. The central salt causes the demarcation between your anterior frontal lobe on a posterior parietal. Um, so the postcentral gyrus, which is just after the central sulcus, belongs to the parietal low on that contains your primary somatosensory cortex. And which is why going back to the question that I said, The reason you have contralateral neglect off of your limbs in a parietal lobe vascular abnormality would be because the parietal lobe consists off your primary somatosensory cortex. So So you have your central celibacy of precentral virus and your poor central gyrus. This is your Sylvian fissure. They all come down there before we move on to the posterior aspect off the brain. Actually focus on three main things. The inferior frontal gyrus has to come and meet the Sylvian Fissure. And that's forms the frontal. Or particular, Um, but they're called more specific names. So the answer to the frontal a particular, um, wouldn't just be the inferior temporal cars. It's got three divisions. Anteriorly along here, you've got something called a pars. Orbit, Alice, you've got this triangular gyro that you see here. That's your part, Triangularis. And then this Gyra you can't see here. But these two are actually connected behind the focus that's called your paws orbicularis. And so the arms out of the question. What is the frontal? A particular I have three parts. Orbital is frank galleries and arm or be calories. The reason they're important is because the PAS or be calories is where you have broccoli area, which is needed in speech on comprehension. And it's connected with Bernanke's area, which is in the temporal lobe. It'll come back, come in, come back that so that's the arms of the frontal. Popular now moving on to the right along. The anatomy of the parietal lobe isn't all that much. We mainly focus on the frontal and temporal, but I thought, but I think it's crucial to know that on because it's easy one. To understand how everything structure. So the posterior continuation off the superior temporal gyrus is the C shaped gyrus that goes from the bottom, curves anteriorly and then goes on the top surface of the civilian fissure that is the supermarket Giles on that is part of your parietal lobe. As you can see, the bridal lobe starts here in the upper central gyrus. Then this is your supermodel gyrus, which is continuing, which is a continuation of your superior temporal Jaros. Then you've got this thing called the intra parietal soldiers. It's in the name. It cuts the price of two on, then just posterior to the interpreting soccer's You put your angular gyrus. So the reason the parietal lobe is in talk about much in terms of gyra and sell kind, because it is highly variable in the time on the reason we don't know because it's not as variable as the temporal, because the temporal lobe on the frontal lobe under variable is a private club eyes not sure in this image but you. But this intraparotid soccer's actually divides the bride too low into an inferior love. You on a superior love you. The inferior lobule is that further divided by this intraperitoneal sulcus into a supermodel virus on an angle a child. So that's very important to remember. The price is low. You have a superior lobule and an inferior lobule in fear. Lobular further divided into supermarkets, giants and angular cheilitis. Then you can almost see a demarcation line here. There isn't a name to that that's just called your transfers of the right occipital, so costs on. Then this forms you accept the lower the end on just like the temporal lobe you got a a superior occipital gyrus, your middle occipital gyrus and your inferior occipital gyrus. So that's the lateral view. Moving on to a more medial view. You get started from anterior to posterior. All of this is your frontal lobe, especially your superior superior frontal gyrus. Then he moved posteriorly. This is where the central soldier starts and then comes down here. So that forms your paracentral low. Um, just forced you to it. You have all of this is your parietal lobe. So this would be your superpowers. Your superior lobule off the pride too low on this is just called the precuneus. It's part of the right lobe. Just another division off the superior lobules on. Then, posterially, as I mentioned, this is your parietal occipital. Soldiers separates the occipital lobe from the right lobe on on the main part on the lateral aspect of the said with your superior middle and infusion iris one in the medial aspect you call the seniors, Which is this gyrus here? Um, but the most important thing when you think off the occipital lobe is you should think off the calcar. I know that the calcareum salt it's the counter. I'm self. This is the most important part of the occipital lobe because just around so circumferentially going around the Cal brand sulcus is your more tickle is your visual cortex, and any stroke in that area can will cause court blinders. There's a syndrome called Anton Syndrome, where patients will have Calgary and so called strokes and then have cortical blindness. But they won't know about it, which I don't know what I guess is the fact Well, so that's the occipital lobe, and this is simply the basil surface of the temporal lobes. If you look up from the down, you will see this as to the basal surface. The reason the basal surface important is because in terms of high yield fact, all I need to know is that you've got the parahippocampal gyrus, the immediately loops in and forms the uncles on. That is where the hippocampus is. So going back to the question that I asked the hippocampus is indeed located in the temporal lobe. It's a medium continuation of the parahippocampal giants. I'm not just focusing on this part of the brain, which isn't much focused on Yeah, all of this is your diet. Settle on. So your deep brain structures, your thalamus, your hypothalamus, your appetite, lemurs, your forties Everything are in the Diastat along. So surrounding the Diastat along this C shaped structure is the corpus callosum. If you look from a top down view off from the internist Eric Fisher, you'll see five years there going across that that is the corpus callosum. The corpus callosum are commissura fibers that helping interhamwe spirit communication. It's just one of the three you've got the anterior common show, the posterior commercial and the corpus callosum, which are your three commissure fibers on. So that's where you have the corpus Collosum going all the way from anterior posterior, and you've got four parts of the corpus callosum, the rostrum, the gen you, the body on the knee. The reason it's called a genuine because it looks like a need that translates to on the body and the speed, Um, on that that forms your corpus callosum just superior to the corpus Close eye on this gyro. I hear this gyrus is called the Singular gyrus. If you ask, a lot of neurosurgeons are a lot of anatomist. What they think are is the answer to war. The different types of the cerebral cortex. They will say the singular cortex is separate because it's part of the limbic system. I'll touch upon the limbic system towards the end of the talk. But the singular gyrus helped in emotions and an executive activity on monitoring and stuff. But that is very high. You to know that it forms by the limbic system and for the singular gyrus and just superior to it. What separates it from the frontal gyrus? If you're single, it's all cars. So there's all the high yield, um, like spot to need to know. And this is just another view off, the same as you can see all these. I only a dryer. I, your frontals middle front of virus to a different virus in front of virus. Your paws are orbital. It Frank Larry's and upper calories. You're superior temporal gyrus, which is which then continues to form your supermodel gyrus. You have this salt is here that separates it from the angle a gyrus. Then you've got the superior lobule off the parietal lobe, as I mentioned. So that means this would have to be the intraparotid silk. It's because the interpreting sulcus divides it from and from a superior and inferior low. Then you've got your superior occipital gyrus, middle of the bell giants and inferior occipital Jaros. So these are just a high yield ones. Do you know you're my yield sulk? I, um you have your superior frontal assault. Middle frontal scalp is and inferior frontal Czolgosz. Then this is a big self in time in nature. But if you can appreciate the fact that that goes all the way, that's your central Psaltis. Which means this is your precentral gyrus, which by definition, must this must be your precentral soldiers. And similarly, this is your postcentral sulcus. This is your inferior temple sulcus. It's superior temporal focus. And then this is your Sylvian fissure. So this image or something on the A S C are on the PS psi are. If you just want to know for extra, they simply referred to the anterior Ramos and posterior Amos of the Sylvian Fissure. The reason they're important is because they just helping demarcation off the local. Um, now, just a bit more on the histology of the cortex, you've got 66 layers. You see some books talk about the New York or Tex and the polio cortex of the Arctic or text. They just simply mean evolution over time. On this is the New York cortex. Because so far, humans have this, um, so six less one being the most of official six being the most deep in continuation with the white matter. As you can see your view leptomeninges Any time you hear the word leptomeninges think of Iraq night and pee a patron in Geez, I do a matter so your first lead to more superficial. There is quite sparse and cells because it's mainly got axon that bend rights than you. But you lead to. It helps in establishing intracortical connections or within the cortex. You left three that gives rise to association and commissure fibers. As I mentioned the commercial fibers in your feet I tend to come ashore pushing from the show and your corpus callosum. Your association fibers are your fasciculus, your superior longitudinal fasciculus or your inferior longitudinal fasciculus or your uncinate particulars, Or you are cured fasciculus. They are in the world in the one association they help connect or help associate two different loads. So you're, let's say, your superior on Google particulars funds all the way from your occipital lobe, your frontal lobe because your frontal lobe I'll come back to this in the next side. Your frontal lobe has something has got its own visual field cortex, which communicated the occipital lobe. And that's to your superior longitudinal fasciculus. Um, similarly, you got your inferior articular particulars that communicate between that or associates the temporal lobe with the occipital lobe. Then you've got left for which is determination of the Afrin fibers. With Salomon nuclear, Afrin means arriving, and so all the fibers coming up. So all your sensory fibers, your D C M L Spinal column, like all of them on when they when they go and synapse at the Kalamazoo, then they won't. Then you're both, um, a cortical tracks on. Then this is where they are and and therefore in left. Five. You got the origin off projection fibers. Two extra cortical targets. Projection fibers in the name they project from the cortex to something else. And that's basically your descending tracks. So you are Corticospinal Corticobulbar Cortical County, and they and they formed the internal capsule on the Corona Radiata. So that's the main protection fiber in a human brain to that from level five on the level six just contains a bit more off those fibers, and it has a multitude of cell. Cripes you unless it's specified by university. I wouldn't I wouldn't recommend knowing every type of cell for your skis or whatever, but it's just good to have an idea. It's a logically now, for the function's off the cerebral cortex. Very important to know this, because not only anatomically will this help you, but also it helps you understand that the physiology very, very easily so historically, they when this I'm naming all these court a seiz. They initially did it in terms of the bone that was overlying them so they would say the frontal cortex of the parietal cortex, because that because those are the bones or the lying those parts of the brain. Then came Rodman, and he gave names to different parts of the brain after not named. Numbers are different parts of the brain, and the way he did that was he took histological slices on all different parts of the brain, and then he stained of them histological, staining on. Then he found differences between each of them, and they number them from one to, like, 49 or something. Um, but it's very important to know which is what. So I'll go one by one. The front of law contains the primary mortar cortex. As I said, that's in your pretty central gyrus, as you can see here, your primary motor in Brooklyn's area. For then you have your pre mortar cortex. Your premortem cortex is just an interior to the precentral gyrus, and that will be this bottom area six. And then you've got your supplementary more to go text. You punch see it on this, but it's more of a medial continuation to be on the medial aspect on. That's an interior to the pre multiple checks. So in the frontal lobe you got three more deported. See supplementary pre mortar and primary mortar cortices on. Then you've got your visual. I feels that's what I said. Your superior longitudinal fasciculus communicates with your visual. I feel that the frontal lobe and as you can see, it's on Brahmins area eight, and it's around the level of the middle frontal gyrus. So it's good to at least know where these are, because I don't know if you've gone into any neurosurgical procedures where they needed to do cortical mapping, where the lab on the cortex of electrodes. But when they do, you've got these eloquent areas of brain, which are which are what is highlighted here on. You must go there, and you must stimulate to see if that part of the brain works or not. If it works, you cannot take it away because that that's eloquent cortex. You will leave the patient with Hae for more babies first operatively, which is why it's very, very, very high yield to know this And then, as I said in body of Broca's area, in your parts or particular areas, which is a part off your inferior frontal, that's then we move on to the parietal lobe, the parietal Loken contains the postcentral gyrus that is your primary somatosensory cortex just posterior to it. You've got your sensory association cortex, and it is this sensory association cortex and when affected by a stroke, causes contralateral neglect on. And, as you can see in this come Uncle is here for the mortar and somatosensory. This is how it's arranged. It's a send it. It's basically an ascending order. Your feet first had lost on depending on which part off the arteries affected. You have different parts of your body affected, so if it's an anti, it's a beautiful stroke. We have legs first effective and stuff like that. Um, then we move on to the temporal lobe. The temporal lobe has your primary auditory cortex, so I didn't have a slice off that image here. But basically, if you remove the frontal lobe and you look at the temporal lobe from a superior to inferior of you, you'll see the The superior temporal gyrus has multiple other transfers. Gyra gyre I multiple of them, but the main one of the biggest one that you'll see is called the shells or partials gyrus that is the primary auditory cortex on that's located in broad area of 41 42 a. Z conceive. It is part of the superior temporal gyrus, but it's more transfers relocated on that. That's your family order to cortex. Then you have your ordinary association cortex, just like any other quarter, just like any other association. 40 just surrounding it. Then you have your Bernanke's area vanities area is all off your superior temporal gyrus. Also invading some of your supermodel Jaros Vernon Keys and brokers are connected by the accurate fasciculus on, So if you have so one causes comprehensive aphasia. One causes expressive aphasia, and if the are cute, fasciculus is affected as well. That would cause global aphasia. So that's your Bernanke's, then. As I said, you have your hippocampus on your ultimate the amygdala. I'll come back to the regular because it because it has a very intimate connection with deep brain structures that I'll talk about next. But it's often the center off here, so the generation of fear and everything is from your Magdala well, and it has to do with our emotions and the Olympic cortex. So lastly, you want your occipital lobe, which forms the primary visual cortex as I said the of the calorie in salt because the cortex circumferentially is your primary visual cortex. And then around that you have the visual association. Of course, that's so that those are the finally function off all the lobes. All the major loves, at least on it's very high yield to know this because a stroke affecting one area would cause pathaphysiology problems affecting these functions. Now, um, I'm one of the deep brain structures. The deeper instructors arise from the diamond Seth along on the deep brain. Because, as you can see, they're covered by lots and lots of layers of dry and salt. Um, on there is a reason for that because they are exceptionally crucial to normal functioning, motor function, century function, thinking memory, they're all intricately leaked on. They're very, very, very contractors to know. So, as I said, you've got your singular gyrus, which forms part of the limbic system. We have your hypothalamus, you've got your pituitary gland. Um, then you have your pineal gland. As I touched upon the final gland in the brain stem, lecture you for your thalamus on the basal ganglia. On the reason I said the amygdala was intimately related. I'm not sure if you can appreciate this, but this, um this out pouching here in the temporal lobe is the amygdala. On this C shaped structure is the cornea nucleus, which forms part of the basal ganglia, and it's basically attached to the amygdala. But the amygdala is not part of the basal ganglia, the amygdalus part of your limbic system. Which test which would should point you towards the direction that there must be some intimate correlation between the basal ganglia on the limbic system. And there is, um, So this was the first question I asked about the insulin lobes. So what is the insulin is not talk to part. They talked about enough, but it's basically on the underside off the frontal and temporal. A popular. It's triangular in shape. It was found on the floor of the lateral sulcus of the silicon fissure. And as I said, it's covered by the frontal temporal parietal of Focalin. It's got the Lehman insula, which is the most an interior, inferior aspect off the insulin, and it represents the level of which the emcee a bike for kids. So I'm not sure, um, it's hard when you talk about the vascular meat? He had mentioned that all the arteries of the brain have got different nomenclature. So you're internal corroded, actually has see 12 C seven and they're not. You're bloated, right? Tested how they are named logically, your anterior lateral has a one to a four mg has, and one and four on. Um so that's what their first to your body. If occassion off your MCAT from the M two to the M three and the M ones, then you've got your major central Psaltis. As you can see, this images go straight to the center that forms the anterior part and a posterior part of the insulin. Um, on the anterior part has an anterior middle and austere E. A short drive, self explanatory dry that short on the posterior aspect has got the anterior posterior long drive. It is connected to the rest of the New York cortex, the basal ganglia, the thalamus and the limbic system. And it plays a very important role in desires, cravings, addiction, psychiatrist disorders. Um, and it's very common to see the insulin lobe affected in seizures when I mean by that is is a lot of adult and pediatric patients who have, like temporal lobe epilepsy often have a dysfunction in the insulin. So when they go in your surgically to remove that part of the temporal lobe often if given the right patient right parameters will also do an insulin low back today. Initially, that surgery is to have a very high mortality rate. But nowadays it's quite by a safe procedure and patient don't have family deficits. Postoperatively. So now we've gone to the Kalamazoo, has a let students are learning and actually in new in African Year through, I I pay attention this so I'll be covering just basically the main high yield aspect. Actually, now there are a pair off gray matter. Um, acid, as you can see in the images, their central hole, any and every pathway that you will read about well, almost always go through the farmers on. So it relieves both motor and sensory, and it lives in the core of the diet stuff. Along on his arterial supply is the posterior cerebral artery and the peak, um, which comes up, which connects the anterior cervical, which connects the enter circulation to the post. Your circulation now the family nuclear. I won't die with the details of each and single nuclear because you don't have to know that nobody knows that apart from like deeply deep brain stimulation, neurosurgeons but in essence of it all nuclear can be self subdivided into a dorsal nuclei and eventually clear on. Then through the syllabus, you've got the internal Madonna really lamina that basically divides it in through a lateral aspect. And the medial aspect on this image is a very good A representation. You go the medial medial that for the media and then last into the internal middle of lamina. Keep the lateral cortex and then anterior, and then that's for Syria. And that's your orientation so that into salad make it even that you see it on the base or it's on the roof right on the lateral borders off the third ventricle. So it goes through it. That's your master intermediates, that your interest a Lamictal decisions that arise in the medial aspect of the thalamus and go to the contralateral side Onda attached to the other. So you've got the medial nuclei. They integrate special a somatic on Mistral Afrin information. You have your last nucleus, Your ventral interventual lateral involved the motor cortex activity you, vpl and BPM on the ones you will know your VPL is where you have the relaying off your daughter column Medial meniscus pathway on your v p l e v p m r both for your spinal column Attractors Well on the way to the top off the neocortex. So those are those are the two main ones you need to know. You've also got the anterior and lateral geniculate body I mentioned. This is the brain stem lecture, but your medial geniculate body is connected to the inferior colliculus by the brachium inferior click alive on it conducts order tree information. Your lactogenic genicular nucleus is connected to your superior colliculus. I buy the brakes young superior colliculus on have to do with gaze movements on suck a dick I rhythms on. So those are your body that towards the posterior aspect of Thomas and that's about as much as much as you need to know about the same. Then you've got the hypothalamus in this century. Locator on it is connected to the end of crime system via the pituitary gland. Anything you do, any kind of always talk about the hypothalamus, pituitary, adrenal axis or testicular axis or whatever. It's always the high performance, because that's where everything originates. Your signals originate. It is connected to the pituitary by the pituitary stock, and it is. It is a part of a dime Cephalon, and it contains multiple masses of grey matter or nuclear that can normally synthesizes the football moon. But they also can send signals to the pituitary to release hormones. On is divided four main regions you preoptic super optic you to bureau and your mammary on the arterial supply from the anterior. Because of high anterior, it's place. It's just beside the optic nerve and the pituitary, so you so it gets it's supply from the anterior circulation, but also there are some posterior circulation like contributions. So the main Salomon nuclear you have to know to the preoptic nucleus helps in thermal regulation because it is a natural summer staff. Basically, if it's too hard or if or if your body is too cold, your supraoptic nucleus on your paraventricular nucleus are the two main nuclei. You have to know if you take something away from this talk in terms of timing Nikki at his ears supraoptic in your paraventricular because in terms of an end up, I'm functioning. Billion anterior pituitary in posterior pituitary. Your posterior pituitary only secretes to hormones 88 or vasopressin or anti diuretic hormone, or actually, on your oxytocic hormone. The posterior particularly actually doesn't release anything. It's new runs from your super optic new piece and your paraventricular nucleus that go all the way down through the pituitary stock to the posterior pituitary, where they go and release these hormones. So it's It's, in essence, these the long Gatien of accidents on these nuclear that go to the posterior pituitary and release it you want. So you supraoptic any apartment very, very high yield the video suprachiasmatic nucleus that helps in circadian rhythm. Onda Azzam entered your part of the trickle and super popping nuclear contained magnocellular. A neuro secretary cells magnocellular. There's big cells that secrete your ADH and toast and then body Amanda nucleus that helps in the rec elective memory. And then, obviously this is just scratching the surface. It was multiple of the nuclear for multiple functions. Fear sexual arousal, sleep longer. So your sleep nuclear, obviously in like narcolepsy and cataplexy are affected on the help in the Russian like hyper cutting and stuff. But that's for a separate left of all together. I just about the pituitary. It's got to part of an anti estrogen terry in a poster in pituitary. The posterior pituitary is what forms from your neural to. In essence, that's what's called your neuro hypothesis. Your anterior lobe is from Wrath Keys pouch, which forms the A dino. My office is, which is why you often have pituitary adenomas. That's where the name come from. So it's a P sized enterprise organ on the undersurface of the brain suspended by the pituitary stork. It lies in the sella turcica of the noise, and it's surrounded by the diaphragm. A seller A Z well, as the medial wall. It also forms the medial off the canvas times. Um, then you've got the superior surface of the sentiment is covered with that muscle. You for the optic kinds of right above it. You got to love and posterior lobes, your post very low secretly to hormones 88 oxytosis in and the anterior lobe secretes all the other ones. You're GH your luteinizing hormone follicle stimulating hormone. Your ACTH area dreams. Your TSH, your thyroid on So PRL is prolactin on annotate is I think it's melatonin, Um, but the actual your prolactin obviously prolactinoma as on, but it has to do with dopamine stimulation. Dopamine stimulation from the hypothalamus, the arterial supply. The anterior lobe is from the superior High Professional Artery, which is a brand of internal carotid artery see six division on the upholstery lobe. Get it from multiple different Contributories, such as a superior I professionally infundibular on tree and inferior heart official options. Then you have your pineal gland, so the pineal gland as adventure is on the dorsal aspect off the brain stem. It's it's under our level of the superior colliculus. It lies on orbit. Shiners, triangle that's where it's groove is. It just rests that it was used to be called the primitive eye on it been hypothesized, but the trochlea nerve, the reason it comes back and then loops around the brain stem is because it initially used to go to the pineal gland on the way, had eyes and I have a loop around to go, and clearly I don't know if it's true number that's that on it forms part of the epistle amounts of the dying Cephalon on its main function is to secrete melatonin. Melatonin. Help regulate your sleep, wake cycle and your circadian rhythms. You'll often see a lot of people taking military tablets, either insomnia or, if you're traveling transcontinental in order to adjust the times on your take melatonin. It's also been shown to have a role in puberty and development of the reproductive system on it's applied, but the posterior carotid arteries of the posterior three right and now towards I'm reaching the end, starting for it's too long. But it's the basal ganglia, very important structures, the basal ganglia. How I like to think about it is, is basically this thing called a corpus. Try it. Your corpus striatum has the three main structures of your basal ganglia. It's all the chordee nucleus, the potato on the global palatis that forms your corpus arm striatum. Your corpus striatum can then be further subdivided into New York fries them and Palios striatum. You're pale. You're frightened. Just contains your blood with politics, your new striatum or call Oakley. Just call the striatum contained. You're courting nucleus and potato. So when you see a question that says, What are the components off the strides? Um, it's called it on, detaining. If the question says one of the contents off the corpus stride and it's called it became and goes, But But that's just a general overview. But as you can see on the image on the right, everything in red is technically part of the basal ganglia. So you have your nucleus accumbens interior, the Coreg nuclear's. You have your substantial nigra, and you have yourself Salomon nuclei. They are part of the brain stem, because off the intricate connections with the rest of the brain stem in the different pathways that I'll touch upon. But they form part of the basal ganglia, and then you have other related structures. The reason they're called related is because they have connections with the basal ganglia. But but they aren't as intimately related in in exclusivity to the basal ganglia like they have other functions are the main functions. They just happen to have connections. The basic idea and those include, as I mentioned, your amygdala, which forms for the limbic system, helps in fear regulation, memories, emotions and exactly functions as well as your phallus. You look at this, um, a cross section off the brain. You can see this is a salad. This most immediately. This is a third ventricle. That's your or pus close. Um, going on interhemispheric. Lee. That's your supper. Thalamic nuclear sits in the name. It's below the thalamus. Lactose intolerance. You go to internal Capsule as I mentioned that your projection fibers lateral to the production. Five. This is where you've got the bolt off your putamen your global palatis. It's got to parts in Turner and external often article medial Unnatural then you can't appreciate on a Corona section. But if you see the Kordech nucleus is an entire C shaped, basically taking the form of your ventricles, and so the boundaries of your ventricle, sometimes the floor or the roof of the ventricles, will often be the college nucleus because it follows that C shape. A lot of the deep brain structures followed a C shape. Your fornix follows a C shape as well, which we won't touch upon today. But that's why, on a corner, it's actually can only see small part of the cognitive issues. So in terms of on atomical boundaries. The internal capsule You separate the Salomon's from the global problem is in the containment. You can see it here. The global paladins is separated from the containment by the, um, external medullary lamina. As I mentioned, the internal medullary lamina separates. That's Thomas. The external lamina separates a global politics and the potato. The vitamin is then separated from this pile of grammatical the claustrum by the external capsule. What the crust? Um, doesn't nobody knows. So if you want to do some research, I would assume it's I would recommend doing it in that because we have no idea what it does on then. Just lateral to the claustrum. You've got your extreme capsule. And if you can appreciate this in a three D, they This is your frontal lobe. This is your temporal lobe. This is your insulin on so that this means this would be your sylvian fissure. So as soon as you retract this the frontal lobe superior Lee and your temporal lobe in clearly you see the insulin. So if you were to take a knife and go straight to the insulin, uh, he would go directly into the basal ganglia So now this is I promise is the end of it. Talking about the direct and indirect part is a better idea, Exceptionally high yield. Now you must know this by heart. When you talk about the basal ganglia, you will basically think about the diet and and I provide. Okay, So the direct pathway, um, basically tries to initiate movement. Let's say you want to go and grab something from a tree. That gram will be initiated by the direct pathway. So how does it work? You have excited Torrey signals sent from the motor cortex. Just here, to your fright. Um, And as I said, the strikes and you're out of nucleus and potato. Their strikes. Um, so So these five is that company motor cortex. They secrete glutamate, and glutamate is neuro excited for it, so it will excite the striatum or, in essence, stimulate the striatum. What you need to know is that the different fibers or the fibers exiting the striatum are inhibitory fibers or Gavin ergic fibers, which means when you stimulate the striatum, it's exiting. Gavin allergic axon increase. So there is more Gavin ergic. I'm exit from the strike and then that goes to your global palatis interna and he substantial night. You're a positive ridiculous on because there's more inhibition going back. Your global palatis and the substantia nigra past particular become inhibited on. That's a good thing because the fibers exiting the bubbles palatis, Internet and stuff Santa nigra, positive killer on the normal conditions are inhibitory. So if you inhibit on inhibitory signal, you would disinhibited and as a result of those if friend, five from the global pilots in turn and substantia nigra positive Philip that go to the thalamus will become. This inhibited will become inhibited. As a result. The thalamus is now disinhibited, which means there isn't that much GABA going to the thalamus as result of thalamus and then become stimulated and send more, more excited, totally signals back to the motor cortex. And that's how your movement arises. But a very important contribution is from the substantia nigra past compactor. Through the night I grow striatal pathways. What happens is it goes from the substantia nigra all the way to the striatum, and they are dopamine. Urgent stimulatory axons on for the direct pathway. The D one axon are stimulated, and so it's since it's basically the same thing is coming from the motor cortex because your input is still stimulatory. As a result, this becomes inhibited, and the Exelon has become stimulated to release more. That's a direct path, so it helps initiate on it is this past that it affected in Parkinson's, which is why they often have problems initiating bradykinesia in Parkinson's. So when you think of Parkinson's, think of the nigrostriatal pathway affecting the direct pathway off the business and you, then you have the indirect affect. The function of the night puffer is to reviews unwanted movements. So you think just had the direct pathway you would have, like hemiballismus of Korea or something where you cannot control your mortar functions onto the entire calf raises a balancing act. But it obviously got more players in the puzzle. So your motor cortex, like usual, we'll send out stimulatory signals to the right. Um, this Friday and now, as usual, we'll send out it's kabiljagic accidents. But now I will go to the Global Palatis External. It will go and inhibit the global palatis extra. The global problem is extra as a result, with decrease it inhibitory effect on the cell thalamic nucleus. So the global Palatis friends our inhibitory. So when you inhibit the global palatis what it's inhibitory impact on the sub stomach nucleus reduces. As a result, the cephalic nucleus will not increase in activity on the outputs of the soft palate. Nucleus are stimulatory, so they'll send out more glutamate. And this one and this are go to the global parodist in town. And if you remember, from the direct pathway the global palace internal difference, our cabin ergic. So if there is no increased immolation of the globe, is paradise interna, it's inhibition on the Salomon's will increase. The thalamus will become inhibited. As a result, your cortex and become inhibited on it will have less off a stimulatory signal going up to the multiple tax and you will does have a decrease in movement on just like a diet pop. So you've got your nigrostriatal pathway through your substantia nigra past and packed up goes and stimulate the strike. Um, that goes and inhibits destroy it, because what the nine most vital part space trying to do. It's trying to initiate movement so it will stimulate the direct effect on it will try and inhibit the indirect halfway on. It's a balance of both that is found in all of us who don't have Parkinson's, because if you have too much direct pathway, you know Korea ballistics. If you have too much in there after you won't be able to initiate anything and he would have a time usually basically. So that's you're in, that you're in direct path, a direct pathway and the the effect of your nigrostriatal place, and then finally about your limbic system, also called the Pap circuit. I won't touch more much upon this because it is extremely complex. We don't know basically a lot of it, but it's basically got five main function of the five s feeding, forgetting fighting, um, family. And for a kating, remember the five after that, the function of the limbic system and the key part that I've already mentioned your big dilemma. Campus on the amygdala is on the front off your chronic mucus and is intricately related to the college noticed on. And as I mentioned, it's has a role in fear on anxiety responses. Any hippocampal formation is obviously memory navigation. Attention, um, and stuff. So end it'll I have five questions, Um, the first one being Which Salomon Nucleus does the dorsal call a medial meniscus track and come on in. No takers. I see. But I understand it. Telling right arm is the VPL. It's your Vental posterior lateral v p. M Is your spinal thalamic? Um, I mentioned this. What makes it the corpus? Try it. And, uh, try and answer that if you can, um and you know moms, is it too? Know so. So your corpus strikes him. Is your college nucleus your retirement? And you're glorious Palatis the college and the potato and simply formed a striatum on the New York Streisand. So whenever the corpus world is proceeding Streisand it's always a trio. When it's not, think of correlated payment on the safe. Palios! Striatum It's too close Palatis for the answer. This should be number four. Um Then last. The third question is which to hypothalamus nuclei released the posterior pituitary formals. Exactly. Your stupidity has only two inputs which are your to hypotonic nuclei. And that's your oxytocin and 88 producing nuclear. And that's a super optic in Ireland. So there's anything you could take away from home. Is that then it's a bit of a cadaveric identification. Um, this's gonna be very hard, because I forgot to mention this, but I just don't want it right now. So, as I said, the parietal lobe has got an intra polite all soldiers that divided into a superior lobby and inferior lobule. The inferior lobule is divided into your supermodel gyrus, anteriorly and your angular gyrus post, Really? But what is the name of the solid cause that divides it? Is what the question is asking. So if this is your interpretive soccer's, you have a vertical selfless coming down dividing the supermarket from the angle a jars and that is called intermediate sulcus of Jensen. Your intermediate circles of gentleman is a continuation ah, for tickle, inferior continuation of the interpreting. So costs separates the super model. Cell casts on the angle are so super marginal driving anger jars that's intimate itself of Jensen. It's highly unlikely you'll be asked this on. It's mainly for, like, neuron acts. Wrists. Um, so what separates the detainment on the global palatis? Is it the external capsule, the internal med, a laminar extreme capsule or the external majority? Okay, so it, in fact, is the external material lamina the internal Mary Lamina separates the thalamus and divided into immediately lateral aspect. The extra elementary laminates between the global palatis on the attainment. So it's so the attainment is bounded immediately by the external memory, lamina and laterally by the external capsule. And that's it. Um, I appreciate that this has been an extremely long lecture on, but we've had some technical difficulties. But thanks for listening. If you have any questions, we'll need to email me or Josh, who is help make the slides. Unfortunately, wasn't here to present, um, but if you have any questions, you can write them in the chat. Or you can, um, use yourself on August. Um, or you could stay back after on baskets, But we're having so honest, uh, just just a reminder. We do have to moralize triggers Friday this week and next week, and then we spinal cord and the special senses. Um, thank you for listening. Thanks so much guys, for coming. Um, after the series of we're going to try and organize the kohut. Chris, that'll sort of summarize everything. Um, so yeah, look forward to seeing as that Yeah. If you've got any questions about All men? Shout. And then I know it's quite late Late on TV that, uh, you know, you just have to speak, or you could just type in the chalice our problem.