Computer generated transcript

Warning!
The following transcript was generated automatically from the content and has not been checked or corrected manually.

Hey guys. So I think we can start now. So, um, so for today, we are just gonna talk about, er, why is radiology, like, try to revise IM MS anatomy and give you guys some tips for your, essentially your exams. So what it's gonna be in your exam, how to revise for anatomy and things like that as well. So, first things, first, this has just been made by us, our society, so it's not been verified by your university. So just bear that in mind. Um, when we go through a stuff. So again, in the meantime, if anyone has any questions, anyone comes up with any questions, I'll just put it in the chat, I'll make sure to uh keep checking it. So I'll get your questions, but at the end we'll have AQ and A as well. So if anyone has a question that wants to save it, you can ask it at the end as well. So, er, the aims of our session today are the following. So we wanna introduce you guys to uh what is radiology? So radiology is not really well, like taught at, like at medical school, to be honest, but it's a very like crucial skill um before, like you guys should be able to interpret uh basic structures of um on, on an X ray, CT scans and stuff like that. Er, but again, when you go on er to phase 234, you would be able to actually recognize conditions from er for example, a chest X ray and so on. Um We'll also look at some comment, er, like anatomy called terminology. So how to describe a stuff. So it's a key thing that will help you in both future practice and again your exam as well. And we'll talk about what is meant by axial a like er, skeleton will like, er, like we'll try to describe the common terminology with movement, which again is not gonna be used in X rays, but again, it's a thing er, that you need to know uh for future um essentially anatomy sessions that you're gonna have anatomy labs and we're gonna talk about central and peripheral nervous system as well and essentially sympathetic parasympathetic p er nervous system. And we're gonna, at the end talk about how this anatomy is all gonna be used in a speciality like radiology. And yes. So, er, just saw your question. Yes. Er, we'll provide the like the slides and the recordings at the end as well. So it will be emailed to you all at the end. So let's talk about radiology at the start. So essentially what is radiology. So people ask, so you guys, uh I assume majority of you guys are gonna be phase ones. So you probably don't have much like much of a good idea of what radiology is. So radiology is essentially using medical imaging to diagnose and guide treatment. So it's not necessarily just X rays or CT scans, it can be um surgical guided imaging as well and very cooler stuff. Um So you can see there's quite a lot of examples here. So we've got MRI S on the right. We've got CT scans and we've got on the left a chest uh x-ray for you guys to have a look at. So um essentially what x-ray is. So X ray is a common thing that you guys are gonna encounter, essentially, er they, you will be exposed to a radiation source and they just take an image by diffraction and stuff like that that you guys don't need to really know. Um you, for phase ones specifically, you do need to be able to identify basic structures on an X ray. So they could potentially in your exam, give you an X ray and ask you what is this bone? So you need to be able to uh identify these stuff. So firstly, like in an x-ray, um we usually do this posterior anteriorly. So we have two ways we called pa and ap. So anterior, posteriorly means you're facing the radiation source, posterior, anteriorly means you're facing away from er, the ra radiation source. And you've, you, you are usually facing away from it when we take an X ray because it gives a better image, a high quality image essentially. But there is sometimes that you will not be able to do APA essentially Postero. And Sally, can somebody think about any situations when um like you would not be able to tell a patient to essentially do uh like an X ray Postero. And so if you guys have any ideas put in the chat or you can unmute yourself? Yeah, absolutely good. Oh My, very well done. So, absolutely. So if if you have an ICU patient, we can't just tell them up. Oh stand up and face away from er the radiation source, which is a very good point. So sometimes even though their quality is lower visits do need to do it, answer it posterity. Very good. So let's move on. So again, it's key to be able to know anatomical position and how to describe this stuff. So it does sound basic but these stuff do come up in the phase of uh phase one exam. So you need to be able to describe what is meant by media. So means towards the center, lateral a from the center. So you just draw a line uh like line of symmetry of the body and that's gonna be a center you have anterior posterior. So you do need to know the phrases that are used er inter exchangeably. So ventral means anterior as well. So they could give you both potentially and ask about it. So we have cranial and cordal as well. So, cranial means towards cranium er means towards the head. Caudal means eve from uh your like head, it means essentially towards your tail, but we don't have a tail as humans. So um it essentially means towards your pelvis and proximal and this is one that people sometimes get confused about. So proximal means towards the origin, but we don't necessarily need to have a specific origin of the body. So it's not gonna be your umbilical cord and say, oh that's the origin, it's relative. So if you take your origin as um your scapular head of the humerus, then proximal is gonna be towards that and this is gonna be towards your fingers, for example, and same goes with um your feet and so on. So, um if we move on, so you guys need to be able to understand all of these, they could potentially ask and in recent exams, these have come up. So they could ask any of these, they could give you a picture and ask you why is this movement er in potentially the SBA or um more likely the SBA than a short answer question. So, um we've talked about superior, inferior, we talked about anterior, posterior, we talked about medial, lateral, proximal distal, we haven't talked about ipsilateral and contra contralateral really. So, ipsilateral means the same side of the body. So, essentially, uh my right eye and my right hand are ipsilateral. So, anything that is on the same side of the body is ipsilateral, contralateral is gonna be the opposite side of the body. So, um my left hand and my right eye are gonna be uh contralateral. So, uh the only thing that you guys need to like, understand from this is because when you do nervous system, then you're gonna be able to understand uh do they supply, that? Does the nerve supply contralaterally or ipsilaterally? Er So you'll hear it more often in the future and then we have deep superficial as well. So deep means deeper down. So you go inside the body, superficial means towards the skin. We have supine and prone position as well. So, Supine position means um when we talk about it, you just lie down facing up. So um we have um other stuff as well that comes into account with Supine and prone as well that we talked about and we've talked about the rest as well. The only thing is raw straw means towards your beak, but as humans, we don't have a beak. So it just means towards your face. So these are the stuff that we talked about. So Supine position is exactly lying down, prone is the opposite way round. So, er we just say, OK, if you wanna talk about Supine, imagine you're eating a soup so you're not gonna be facing down, then you're eating a soup. Um, yeah. So try to make things easier by like coming up with mnemonics or coming up with ways of remembering the stuff that makes it easier. So, essentially this could be another question as well. So this does sound quite simple but they could give you an image, they could give you like a picture and ask you what plane one ana what anatomical plane er is this? So er for these ones you need to understand and you need to know the different terms. So uh we have the, the different uh ones. So we have the sagittal that divides you to left and right. We have uh the coronal that we also call it the frontal plane as well. So it divides you to anterior posteriorly and we have the transverse plane as well, which is this plane and that divides you to superior and inferior. And also remember that transverse is quite a few terms. So, yeah, you need to know that it's called axial sometimes and uh sometimes it's called horizontal as well. So just know that they could be uh using either one of these in your exam essentially. But by the way, guys, like if you ever see a terminology that you're unfamiliar with on uh teach me anatomy or something like that, know that the one that they give you in the anatomy handbook is the one that they're gonna use in the exam. So anatomy Sam makes the questions, so stick to the ones that they teach you, but there's gonna be other terminology as well. So then uh we're gonna talk about a skeleton. So we have axial and appendicular. So axial are gonna be the core skeleton. So, cranium, your er vertebra, your ribs, sternum, that's it. You're not gonna have anything else as a core. So your pelvis is not one that people usually uh g get it mixed up. Your scapula is not one. And actually a very interesting thing Sheffield does quite like asking these random stuff in er the exam. So it could be just a one marker. How many er axial like er bones do we have in the body or how many appendicular one do we have? It's come up before in the exams. So just know that it's 126 Icar and 80 axial essentially. So let's talk about this as well. So we have different types of joints. So you guys will have a session later on in your M SK module if you are in phase one, that they'll talk about the different types of joints and you will hear it more as you go on as well. But we'll just give you guys an overview. So whenever you see this, this picture that comes across and this is mechanical er like in mechanical terms, how could we define joints? What have a histological way of describing this stuff as well. Um That Julian would love to talk about, for example. So um it's not necessarily gonna be in your histology, but again, you will, you will encounter them in the legs as well. So, histologically, we have synovial joints, that's the most common. So like your knees, uh your um like a lot of art joints, so your elbows, so these joints that they essentially have a cavity with a fluid inside. So that's all you need to know at this stage. So that's gonna be a synovial joint. You are going to have a fibrous joint as well. So imagine two bone bones are connected together by a very, very strong fibrous joint. So they're fused together like your sutures in the brain, your skull. And um we have another type of um uh essentially connection as well that in our gums. So we call it gum aosis. So that's again a type of fibrous joint as well. Then we have cartilaginous joints. So, cartilaginous joints are gonna be essentially uh they're like a fibrous joint, but they're more flexible. So they're not completely fixed. So we have two types of cartilaginous joints. What do we mean by that? Firstly? So we essentially mean that we have a cartilage in between the joints. So it's not just fibrous connected to get a fused, it is a cartilage. So you have the primary and secondary. So primary cartilages, joints essentially refer to when you have a hyaline joint, uh like hyaline, sorry, er, cartilage in between the joints. And an example of that is gonna be um, essentially um your Estero costal joints. So essentially they're joints between your sternum and the cost, er, like um, and the ribs. So we have the costal cartilage there, which is the highline joint and, and the thing is if they ever ask you about a type of er, cartilage, if you're stuck, just put hyaline down because it's the most common like um er cartilage that you would ever encounter just put hyaline down, er like um elastic, you never get it, you get it like in ears and stuff, but it's really not common to be honest. Um So we have secondary cartilaginous as well. That again, essentially um is quite similar. Um So um like he again has Hylene but it's gonna have two layers of fibrous uh like at like fibrous joint like above and below the hyaline, that's gonna make it very stable and it's gonna be mainly found in your like intracerebral discs. So it's gonna be the main joints uh like that's gonna be between your vertebra. So this quick overview, you will encounter it more in the future. So this is gonna be like the histological way, but we have the mechanical way of describing stuff as well. So the most common that you guys will hear about is er ball and socket. So ball and socket is your shoulder joint. So we call it the gleno humeral joint. You, you'll learn about it more in the future. So, don't worry about it for now. You have the pelvic joint. Uh So these are the joints that essentially a ball fits into a socket and can completely ro rotate around. So it gives a very, very good range of motion. We also have uh other types of joints. So hinge joints. So you can see a hinge joint is quite like looking similar to ball and socket. So they, they're like a, again ball fitting into another one, but they're not a fully qualified like ball, I would say it's kind of, they more look like, um, a cylinder. So that's why they don't have as much of a range of movement as a ball because they are very restricted on how they could, um, move. So they essentially could move very well in only one or two planes, er, as opposed to ball. And so, ok, we have candy as well. So condyloid, um, is, you can say again, it, it is similar but it's oval in shape. So it's not gonna be like a food ball. So again, it's not gonna give it as much of a good, er, range of movement. So you're gonna get condyloid, er, essentially in your wrist, you're gonna get it in condyles. So your fist, this type of joint and, um, you're gonna have a saddle joint. So er, saddle joint is again, quite similar. So they say, ok, imagine a rider sitting on a horse. That's why they call it the saddle joint. But again, it doesn't give you as much of a good, um, like range of movement. But again, it does give you some movement. So a common example is between the first, er, c carpal and metacarpal bones in your hands, then we have pivot joints as well and plain joints. So, plain joints are essentially just two bones rubbing together. So that's uh between your carpal or tarsal bones in the hands or the feet and pivot joint um is gonna be like uh like a pivot. So one is gonna fit into the other one and one is just gonna rotate around the second one. So like, um you're gonna have that, uh we call that uh alan axial joints, but we don't need to know it for now. So it's just gonna help your head move around essentially. So this is just an overview. Um But again, you guys will encounter this more, but again, they could ask you any of these, they could just give you this joint and ask you OK, what type of joint it could be. So, by the way, guys, anatomy is more likely to come up in um essentially your er single best answer paper if you're a phase one. So roughly around 25 out of 100 there's gonna be anatomy and SBA by your short answer question, there's not gonna be that many anatomy questions. There, there, there was a few last year that they were very, er, straightforward. So uh they're not gonna try to ask very, like, er, ridiculous stuff. So don't worry about it too much. So, um we are gonna have more stuff like more terminology to describe movement now. So we've described joints and we've described how to describe a stuff relative to each other in the body. But let's go and talk about describing movement. So these are quite key as well. So I usually say flexion is uh like if I'm flexing my fist, I'm reducing the angle. So usually flexion is reducing the angle. But the co the common example that confuses people is flexion of the entire arm. So when you're flexing your arm, you're not reducing the angle. So you are just essentially moving it up and then when you're extending it, you're moving it, uh OK, you're moving it down. So the way that I used to remember this is essentially was why the fact that OK, if you've ever had or if you've ever um hyperextended your arm or anything at the sports. So again, uh it, it could happen. So I would, I always think of it as this is gonna be extension and that's gonna be extension. But again, think of any way that will help you to remember it easier, then we have abduction and adoption. So abduction is, er, gonna be, um, when you essentially close something, when you bring something together. So when you bring your hand down, abduction means um you're gonna do the opposite way around, you're gonna open it up so it can apply to like your um vocal cords as well. So we have something called remo glottitis. You learn about it, essentially, it's just your walker fours. So when they close, we call that um abduction as well. So auction is just closing together, then we have internal rotation and external rotation as well. So we're rotating towards the center, rotating a from the center. So internal and external and they could come up in the exam. So I can't tell you guys what came up in the exam last year. But I can tell you in the past few years, there's been these, they could give you any of these, I mean, they have given people these and asked, OK, this is a picture. What type of movement is this? Describe this? So it is quite crucial to understand these. So we have more movements. So uh in terms of your spinal cord, we have flexion and extension. So flexion again means reducing the angle. You can see you're making it closer to your feet. But extension means you are like moving away from um the anatomical position I would say then we have rotation. So rotation is essentially rotating laterally, but we have lateral loca rotation as well. Which is different from moving this way. So lateral uh rotation or lateral flexion only applies to um like a spinal cord. So essentially means when you laterally flex, so when you laterally close the angle between your body and your feet, so um then we are gonna have er if you move on, we are gonna have some more movements. So we are gonna have in terms of uh our jaw. So we are gonna have er protraction and retraction. So, retraction means you bring it back. Protraction means you pull it like forward. So it happens with your shoulder as well. So if I'm doing this, if I raise my hands, I'm protracting. If I bring it back, I'm retracting as well, then you can do elevation and depression as well. Same with your jaw as well. Then we have something called opposition. So bringing your thumb and uh like little finger together and you have dorsiflexion and plantar flexion with feet as well. So essentially think of it as plantar surface of the foot and the dorsal surface of the foot. So you flex the dorsal flex er dorsal side. So that's gonna be pulling it down and the plantar side is the above. So you're flexing the plantar side. So that's what you're doing then inversion and inversion. So it's quite hard to remember which one is which. But again, just try to know that inversion is when the sole of your foot comes immediately. Essentially towards the center. Good. Um So then let's talk about the gross anatomy of upper limb and lower limb in more detail. Er, so I apologies, guys have been just talking at you guys are probably there's gonna be more interactive stuff er, later on. So essentially you need to, at this stage, you need to understand uh the basic bones and where they're located up and, and lower limb and you'll do it uh in the M SK module in more detail. So know that humerus is just the main bone of your arm. And then we call the second part after your elbow, your forearm. So your forearm has radius laterally and ulnar immediately. And then we have the carpal, metacarpal and phalanges. So the carpal bones are the small, tiny ones, metacarpal are gonna be the ones that are just before your fingers. And then you have, er, three phalanges in er, your main fingers and in your thumb, you have two phalanges essentially. So, one thing I wanted to mention is the fact that the, you can see the ball and soccer joint. It's, it's, it's a loose fit so it doesn't fit very well. That's why it gives you a very good, like range of motion because it doesn't fit very well. So why do you think guys that it just doesn't fall off? So your shoulder does, doesn't just get dislocated every day? Why do you think that it, it is a loose fit? But what is there that is helping it? It's actually a stay in this position. So, if, if you wanna put it in the charts, if you have any ideas or if you wanna unmute yourself, that's absolutely fine as well. Any ideas. So, why doesn't it, why doesn't your shortly just get dislocated every day? Yeah. Absolutely. Yeah. And that's a very good point. So your muscles. Absolutely. Absolutely. A good point, rotator cuffs. and um we have Gleno glenoid labrum as well. So very good, good points and we have ligaments as well. Benny. Yeah. Er, very well done guys. You've got all of them. So again, it could be a three marker in your short answer question asking you state 33 things in your body to actually stabilize the glenohumeral joint or something like that. Um So good point. So your muscles, so your muscles actually attach there. So they don't let it fall. So your uh they're like we call it the, essentially the long head of your biceps, for example, uh attaches them and then uh we have the Gleno Glabrum as well. So what it does essentially uh makes it fit better. So it's just that like you guys learn about it more. So it just like essentially makes uh the joint fit better and you have ligaments as well. So good. So, ligaments are essentially like bone to bone. So any bone to bone connection by a fibrous uh material is just called the ligament essentially. So ligaments are gonna make sure that it doesn't fall off as well. Very good guys. Um So now let's just you gotta be able to identify stuff on x-rays as well. So imagine you've been given this x-ray. So in usually, unless if the patient is very ill or something, they would give you the x-ray in anatomical position usually. So whenever they give you an x-ray, think of it as you're looking at it in the opposite way. So when you're looking at them, uh you whatever you're seeing on your right is actually the left of the patient because they are just on the other side. So I know that and that's gonna be the first thing that you're gonna realize from an x-ray. So is this the left side or is this the right side? So in this case, I would look at it, it's gonna be the left hand hands of the patient and we've been given an X ray of it. So OK, guys just quickly put it in the chart. What is the furthermost, the left box that we have highlighted? So why is that one, that one showing? So it's, it's, it's referring to a bone. So what bone is that one? Any ideas? Yeah. Absolutely. Humerus. Good, good job. So it is absolutely the humerus. So um it is one of your biggest bones and good then. What is the top right one? So the top right one. Which bone is that, is that the radius or is that the ulnar? Absolutely. It is gonna be the radius, very well done. You guys are very good at this. So um good. So always like if you wanna just if you're unsure, like which side is medial, which side is lateral. For example, in this case, what you can do is the one that is close to your thumb is going the radius. So your thumb is always lateral. So the one that's close to your thumb, is it so very good question, how do we know it's the left hand? So look at it they've given. So again, very good question. It could be the right hand, it could be the right hand, but usually in your stage, they would give it to you in anatomical position. So they would not give you a picture that they handed, facing the other way around. So they would usually give you a picture where you are in anatomical position essentially. So they would try to do that. But again, it's a very good point. If I haven't told you guys that this is, this patient was lying down flat on anatomical position. You would not be able to tell if this is gonna be um the left hand, which is a good point. But yeah, good um soap, then we're gonna talk about the gross anatomy of the lower limbs. So again, don't worry about the details too much for now because uh you're gonna do it later on in M SK module. So just, just, I appreciate the basic uh basics of it essentially. So if you have the sacrum, um so the sacrum essentially gonna be uh at the end of your pelvis, attach your pelvis and it's gonna essentially transmit the weight from your upper body to your lower body. You have the hip joint, uh or the pelvic joint. Some people call it, then you have your thighs, your knee, your legs and ankle and foot, that's gonna have different bones. So, in your thigh, you're gonna have the femur, uh then in your knee, you're gonna have the patella. So it's just gonna like connect. Um So don't worry about patella too much. At this point. We are gonna have tibia vh again, tibia is the medial one and then we have the fibular uh which is the lateral one. So again, you will encounter some, some people calling it perineal rather than fibular. So specifically the ne nerve, they call it the peroneal nerve, essentially the same thing. But the one that we stick to er for our curriculum, it's just um fibular and fibular nerve. So then we have like it's, it, it mirrors so you can see exactly what we've got in the upper limb we have in lower limb as well. So we have the carpal metacarpal and phalanges. We have the torso metatarsal and phalanges uh in the foot as well. So it's again, good to make the links with the stuff that can help you guys remember the stuff easier. So first things first, what can you guys if you look at this picture, this has been given to you, what can you tell about this patient? What is wrong with them? Is there anything wrong that you can see and be like, oh, there's something wrong. Yeah. Yeah, absolutely. So Benny said compound fracture. Yeah. Good. Yeah, very good. So intramedullary nail in the tibia, so very, very good described. So you've got it nailed on. So it's exactly the nail and it's in the TV as well. So good. So again, it's a method. So for those of you guys that are in phase one, so essentially just a method of fixating um your limb. So when you get a fracture. So in this case, um you don't need to know what type of fracture it is. But in phase one, you will er learn a lot more in your M SK module about the different types of fractures and then you'll be able to do this um more detail. So, no, no, no, no, don't worry. So you're not supposed to know that this is an intra intramedullary nail. Honestly, don't worry about it for phase one. So what this is so essentially putting a nail and putting a metal to make sure your tibia doesn't move and it can actually heal as fast. As possible. So you don't need to know what it is. I'm just giving you guys con uh context. So I'm just trying to show you how like x-rays could be in real life essentially. Um Like, don't worry about the details, the med like the clinical stuff if you're phase one, but if your later phase is you do need to be able to identify this as you guys did. So, yeah, good questions. So again, this is quite easy to identify that we have the femur at the top. Then as you guys have already identified, we have the tibia and the fibula. So let's move on. So we have tendons. Um Let's talk about tendons um in more detail and see what they are. So, tendons are essentially uh what there's kind of like soft tissue that connect bones to muscles. So that's what they do. That's the difference between ligaments. Er the ligaments connect bone to bone. Um tendons don't. Uh So essentially there's gonna be different um like components in them. So they both have elastin, but I usually er ligaments have more er elastin in them than tendons. But again, like you don't need to know it. Now, you will have a lecture on it in the M SA module. So for now, I appreciate what it is and you might encounter a term that's called aponeurosis that you might find it confusing, but essentially the same as a tendon. But when your tendon becomes a flat sheath and then it co like covers a very big surface. Er, the most common example of it is that, um, the sheath, rectus sheath around rectus abdominis. Sore rectus abdominis is the six pack muscle, essentially. So the sheath around it is called the Rectus sheath, which is a type, the most famous type of aponeurosis that you're gonna see, you know, anatomy labs. So let's talk about shapes of muscles as well. So, er, we have again, different types of muscles. We were talking about the shapes here. So we have the different histological types that Julian would love to talk about. You guys, er, like talk about it with you guys. Er, so we have the skeletal muscles, cardiac muscles and smooth muscles and you need to know the histo histological S er slides. Er, but again, just to memorize what Julian tells you and er, in this case, we are showing you what types they are. So, again, the glass station and b uh like SB eight essentially to see OK, what, what this, what's the type of this muscle? So it's good to understand what they are. So conversion means all of the fibers converge to a point. So like your pectoralis that you're gonna have in your chest, um multipen eight bipennate and unipennate essentially means there's gonna be some fibers but they are emerged to a central tendon and uh that tendon is gonna like connect uh that muscle to bone. So, um, in multipen a, you have your deltoid, um, in your shoulder, you like bipennate, you have the cortis of femoris, er, in your thigh that you learn about it more in unipen A, uh, they have extensor digitorum, er, longus. Um, but again, you guys don't interfere in phase one right now, don't worry about the term nodule. Just use, I'm just telling you guys the name of the muscles, but you'll do them in each er like module as you go through with them. So again, they love asking definitions if you're a phase one. they in their short answer question, they just ask quite a lot of definitions. So motor unit is a good one, they could ask to, you should know what a motor unit is. So a motor unit is a single motor neuron and all of the fibers it supply. So if muscle fiber is not the entire muscle, it's just one fiber in the muscle. So one neuron can actually um like supply a lot of different um fibers in a, a specific muscle. So that's the definition as well. So then if you move on, you need to understand vertebral column. So uh you need to know the different like the distinctions. So essentially cervical, that's gonna be your neck, thoracic at your back. And then you have lumbar, the lower back, then you have sacral and coccygeal which are fused uh to your sacrum essentially. And then you gotta be able to know how many there are. So I used to memorize the total. So the total is 33. Then I used to say, OK, there is seven Cervical 12 thoracic and then come up with the rest. So S like Lumbar and S are gonna be five and five and ci is gonna be four essentially. So you guys don't need to know exactly what each of these do. So to be honest, you're not gonna learn exactly the like function of T one T two T 12. But again, they will supply different places. You, what you do need to know is the diff like differences between these types of er vertebra. So essentially, they could give you an image and ask you what type is this and it could come up or they could give you a picture and ask you about a specific part and ask you. OK. Er What is this part showing? So the main common differences between cervical and thoracic is the fact that cervical has a bi ft sinus process. So the process is just gonna look like uh what we've got in the picture. Then thoracic is just gonna have a spinous process that is long downwards. And additionally, um the cervical ones do have a transverse parameter. So in the transverse process, they're gonna have a foret where uh uh essentially and artery is gonna go up uh inside it essentially. And then in lumbar, we're gonna have a like a, a sinus process that is very rectangular. So just bear that in mind as well. And you should be able to actually er name these as well. So they're quite self explanatory. So spinous process is just spine, transverse process is just a process er to, to laterally. So essentially a process is so it's, it's not like a procedure. So a process is essentially just an extension of a bone, we usually called a process. Um So the, the only thing that I would say people get confused is lamina and pedicure. To be honest, just memorize pedicure is the side one. Lamina is the back one. So OK, here, I'm just showing you guys another x-ray. So again, this hopefully should be quite easy. Always if anyone gives you an X ray and you think, OK, what is wrong for when you get later on? So think about the fact that you wanna look for any specific places where continuity of bone is broken. So that's gonna be a fracture. So it might not be as obvious as this one. But sometimes if you use the same principles, you'll be able to identify uh the more difficult fractures as well. So can someone describe to me where the fracture is? So the bone um can you can, can anyone describe it to me where the fracture is in this specific example? Oh, you can see the x-ray. Oh, apologies. I don't know what has happened. It's probably a me problem. Ok. So essentially this was supposed to be um so yeah, I like ignore this one, apologies again guys. So essentially it was just supposed to be um fracture. Yeah. Yeah. Radio. Absolutely. It is good. Well done. So yeah. Uh ok. If you can say it, that's absolutely fine. Good. Ok. That's good. So it might have been just taking a while to load. I apologize about that. There's too many slides, but yeah, essentially it was a radial uh fracture. Good. So again, if you wanted to be more specific, I would say it's in the 2nd 3rd, essentially like it's gonna, it's not gonna be in the top third or the bottom third of the bone, it's just gonna be roughly in the middle. And uh yeah, so this, this, this is quite a bad fracture, but again, it could happen. Well, good. So if we move on to the brain as well, so we're gonna talk a little bit about brain and what do we mean? So what do we need to know? So again, the terminology you need to know is rostral towards your face, caudal, towards your back. So it's not like your body. When you have cranial and caudal, you have caudal and rostral here and er you can call it anterior and posterior as well, to be honest, which is fine, you have superior and inferior as well. So it's the same just up and down, then you have dorsal and ventral. So it gets a bit more complicated in the brain. So in our body, we said ventral means er towards the front. But in the brain, it doesn't mean towards the front. It essentially um means um chores like kind of like your face and then away from away from it, it's gonna be the ventral side and ventral and dorsal are gonna be the same in your spinal cord as your body as well. It's gonna be quite straightforward. Then we have divisions of nervous system. So again, notice uh essentially, it's quite simple. They have central and peripheral. So central nervous system, two components, brain and spinal cord, peripheral nervous system, we have motor and uh sensory neurons, but motor neurons could be somatic or autonomic. So, autonomic or involuntary somatic or voluntary. An autonomic is sympathetic, parasympathetic, so sympathetic, essentially um like in an arousal state. So essentially fight or flight when you're very ready, very like uh your uh pupils are dilated, you're breathing heavily. But parasympathetic is when you're resting and digesting essentially. So again, this has come up in phase one exam before to define it and give an example, give examples or like few examples of um what is gonna be PERMP pae like what is an effect of person pae nervous system? And also remember that if you do say somatic and autonomic or a division of motor system, but in nervous system, it's more complicated. So you're gonna get sensory nerves going back through the same fiber as well. So some of those autonomic nerves like nerves, nerve fibers do also have some sensory information going back. So it's not just gonna be zero and one and say, oh this is just completely uh motor and not supplying anything else but yeah, good. So uh but yeah, autonomic nervous system, the sensory of those ones usually supply the internal like uh give you information from internal organs. So then we have this picture that you guys can see like how the divisio, the uh the, the vision works. Essentially, then if we move on, we have the cerebrum. So at this point, you guys just need to know what is a g what has a sulcus. Uh So essentially G is the folds, the grooves inside are going sulcus. Um how I remembered it. So you guys will learn it in neuro. So I knew Calin sulcus is uh just the the groove there. Um your like your er optic information, like your, your, your visual information is gonna be processed. So I used to remember that as the sulcus and you will hear a term that's called neocortex. Nobody will explain to you what it means essentially. So Neocortex is essentially the top six layers of your brain, essentially that does a lot of processing. So you need to understand the four lobes as well. So we have these four lobes, you will learn a lot more about them um as you go through um like your course when you do neuro, but at this point, you need to just know like where each, each one roughly is. So er from frontal lobe is gonna be where your personality lies where usually your motor cortex is. Um and things like that and then parietal lobe is gonna be just behind er frontal lobe and it's gonna be where your sensory information er is processed. And in temporal lobe uh is separated out, you don't need to know the name of the fishes and stuff yet if you're phase one, so they're separated and just keep it simple. So the temporal lobe just know we have uh the auditory cortex. So like your hearing and also uh we have hippocampus towards the medial side. So hippocampus is used for memory formation. So you can er like essentially like is um like you can say temporal lobe is involved in memory as well. Then we have er the occipital lobe at the back. So that's where your er visual information is gonna be processed. Good. OK. So brain and stem honestly, there's too much to do with brain stem at this point. Just no midbrain pons medulla, you'll be fine, you'll do a lot more about them. So you, they'll tell you a lot more nuclei, there is far too many nuclei in er the brain stem. You don't need to know any of them to be honest, for phase one exam. So you just need to know the main ones uh that they will emphasize on quite a lot when you go through them. So if we talk about the spine, a common exam question, I just put this here that where does the a spine end? So the spinal cord ends at level of lumbar one, lumbar two. So either one depends on the person it could end at either and we have 31 spinal nerves as well. This, this can come up on a as an exam question as well. So we have 33 vertebral bodies, but we have 31 spinal nerve. Why? Because we have only one coccygeal nerve and in so we have three less. So we have three less and we have one more er cervical. So we have eight cervical nerves from seven vertebra and that means that we're gonna have two lesser nerves in total, then we're gonna have um vertebral bodies. So it's gonna be 31. So again, just remember these facts, they could come up so ventricles of the brain as well. So again, you like you'll do these ones uh in the in the new resection. So it does sound quite abstract. So where they are located, they're the medial side of your brain. So quite at the center ii like the picture at the right, because it shows where they are located. So roughly at the center and you'll do a lot more about basal ganglia around it and you need to understand where lateral ventricles are. So that's where something called choroid plexus is. So choroid plexus produces the cros spinal fluid, don't need to know it. Now, I'm just telling you guys, but again, if your face is one, you to do it in Europe and it's gonna be connected to the, er, third ventricle, er, via the interventricular foremen. Some people call it the foreman of Monro, they're more traditional people. Uh and then the, the third ventricle is connected to the fourth ventricle er by the cerebral aqueduct. Some people call it Sylvian a aqueducts. Again, it's more traditional than whatever you see or whatever we use is absolutely fine. And then we are gonna have a central canal that's gonna supply the cerebrospinal fluid to your spine. Spine essen essentially. So this is just an overview because people do find it quite complicated. So just know roughly where they are located towards the center and just roughly the shape. But w whenever you do it in anatomy lab, it will help you to visualize it better that so um we, we are gonna have, we're gonna talk about meninges as well. So you don't need to know much about them at this point. Just know the three layers. So we have dura matter, um Arachnoid and pr so these are gonna be the ones. So roughly, you need to know that the dura is very er unflexible. It's just very hard. And if you try to pull it, like, try to do this, try to rip it open, you will not be able to do it in the anatomy lab. Um But pr you're not gonna essentially see it, it's just embedded exactly on the surface of the brain. You can't really pull it off. It's just a layer on top of it. And you guys need to appreciate that between these layers of spaces as well. So they like between subarachnoid space. Uh A and P I is gonna be very cerebrospinal fluid is for example, but again, you'll do all the important stuff when you do neuro. So Scovill, so essentially Scovill is an example of something we call a functional anastomosis. So what does ANAs anastomosis mean? So ana anastomosis essentially when different um essentially um different arteries are connected together. So if one of them gets occluded, the entire supply doesn't get completely cut. The other one makes up for it. So you can see these ones are connected together. So if you look at the posterior cerebral arteries, so if one of them is er completely like not completely but partially occluded, the other one can essentially make up for it a little bit er and give some to the other arteries. So that's the entire point of it to make sure that if you have a slight occlusion, it's not gonna kill us. Um So you guys need to understand. So it's hard to visualize where it comes from. So vertebral bodies, so vertebra arteries come from, um, like your vertebra. So from your subclan er brain like subclan arteries, sorry, they're gonna come up from that transverse parameter and they're gonna supply the brain. So they only roughly supply 20%. But the, um, the, um, the other one that supplies the brain um, is gonna be so internal, er, common carotid is gonna be the one that supplies 80%. And uh you guys don't need to know m much at this point. So you guys will do it in like future as well. So again, that several our bodies come together, they make the pontine. So poin supplies the brain stem, then you have posterior, middle and anterior cerebral art uh cerebral arteries that supply the anterior posterior and the rest is gonna be the middle cerebral artery. And um then what you are gonna have is the communicating branches, which is very interesting, the anterior communicating er artery, which is supposed to act like um anastomosis. So this is a question by Tom Farrell that he said apparently we don't really count them as an anastomosis because they're very tiny. So uh yeah, so they don't really like do much if one of them is occluded. But again, just notice a structure they could ask you as well. So you guys don't have uh the a spotter we did in either. So, you don't need to worry about it in too much detail about where exactly everything is. So whenever they give you something in the exam, it's gonna be completely obvious. So there's not gonna be any doubts on. Oh, this one is the middle cerebral artery, it's gonna be obvious. That's the middle cerebral artery. Then cranial nerves don't need to know it f like for now, like it's very useful stuff. So I've listed the 12 cranial nerves here. We'll do a lot more about them in the future. So you really essentially need to memorize them but not now. So I'll just put this there a common exam question. Which one of the er cranial nerves are parasympathetic. So we have a um acronym say 1973. So cranial nerves 379 and 10 are parasympathetic and there's a lot of uh like essentials as well on how to remember which one is sensory, which one is motor, which one is both? So some say marry for money, but my brother says big brains matter more. So that's gonna tell you which one is somatic, which one is motor and there is other stuff as well that you can use to remember this stuff. So the only interesting thing I would say is not gonna be in your exam. But again, olfactory nerve and optic nerve are considered as an extension of the brain. They're not really considered as peripheral nervous system because they are an extension of the brain. But again, they're never gonna ask you some niche. I mean, they might, they might but not this ni stuff that oh is this gonna be peripheral and central nerves seems just a fun fact. So then we have a ganglia as well. So let's talk about what is a ganglia. So we have different types of ganglias, but ganglias essentially means where their bodies of neurons are gonna be outside their central nervous system. That's what we call a ganglia. And you're gonna have the dorsal root um and ventral root as well. So ventral means towards the front. So it's the root that comes from the front and dorsal root is the one that comes from the back of the essentially the spine and er like dorsal root is er essentially sensory ventral. There's gonna be motor, just remember that. So it means in the ventral aspect of the gray matter of the spine, you're gonna have motor in er the posterior aspect, you're gonna have sensory neurons as well. And the other thing to remember is that motor neurons synapse at er the gray matter and the cell body is at the gray matter, but sensory neurons, the cell body is in a place called the dorsal root ganglion. So there are different types of nerves that you'll do in the future as well. But no doubt, roughly if you see this don't get confused on what they are. So, mitos and dermatomes you guys have probably done this. So they will give you some ridiculous pictures that they've list all of the mioton and dermatomes. So myotome and dermatome. So fo dermatome is an area. So an entire area of the body that's supplied by one nerve. So, dermatome, uh if we define it, myotome is the same, but myotome comes from muscle dermatome come from dermatology, skin. So myotome is an a muscle, an area of muscles that supply by one nerve. So the only ones that you do really need to know is T five and T 10. So the breast around nipple area, the areola, it's gonna be where T five is T 10 is gonna be umbilical. Know that that's come up in the exam before they could ask, can they stuff on it? So just know these two, you do need to know the arm and the leg ones but not for now cos you haven't done them. So let's talk about the clinical case and uh we'll just have a few questions and move on. So imagine we have a patient that is admitted to the hospital after a car accident and they are reported to hit the head very hardly and they appear to be conscious. So the doctor comes to call, the radiologist says, ok, let's do a brain CT scan and they re they ki kind of like say this is a CT scan and they confirm the patient's condition. So what could their condition be? So does anyone have any ideas or what does this CT scan show you about the brain of this individual? Any ideas just put in the shots or give us a shout? Yeah, absolutely. It is a hemorrhage. Good, good job. So does anyone know what type it is? I don't expect anyone to know this, to be honest, but if anyone is after phase one, bye. Um Yeah, absolutely. It is extra dural very well done on ma but l can you guys see the, see the CT scan cause some people can't, some people can't, can you guys see the other pictures or very problematic as well? Is everything? OK. Yeah. Is he all good? Ok. So I assume that's a yes. So uh again, let me know if you can't see anything else as well. I'll email you guys the powerpoint later on as well. So you can see this stuff. So why do you think? So this person has a hemorrhage? So um so, so you can actually move through the slides as well. So you can actually move through the slides so it could actually like press next one as well. So it's not gonna affect um like the thing but you can just press next as well. So if it doesn't come up for you automatically, which you should, well, you're gonna apologies about that. I'll look into it for next time. So we are gonna be on this like 36 right now, if anyone has the same problem. So um OK. So OK, why do you think, why do you guys think that they ordered a CT scan? Why didn't they go for an MRI? So MRI gives you a lot better quality of an image? So it's a lot higher resolution. Absolutely. Very good, very good. So CT is a lot quicker. So if a patient hit their head really hard, you're not gonna tell them, oh, go to an MRI that's gonna take 30 minutes. They might just die by that point. So if a patient hits their head really badly and they have a hemorrhage, like they might, their brain will start over overcompensating essentially and you might be conscious, but it doesn't mean that you're necessarily in a very good state. So you could just die very soon. It is a very good point. So, yeah, both on guys so quickly we'll finish off. So, uh first question. Um Yeah, absolutely. I'll, I'll share the, the slides later on. Er, I'll share them earlier next time, but again, I've put them on the screen. So you guys should be able to see. Is anybody else having problems with this slide as well? Is that just Farina that he's having difficulty? So, let me know and put it in the chart and I'll look into it. So, for this question, which of the following bones is, is axial? So, is it a scapula pelvis? A sternum or humerus. So put it in the chat. What do you think the answer is gonna be? Yeah, anyone, anybody else has any ideas. So we have one work for. Just give it a go guys. There's no judgment. I mean, you can probably see the answers but please don't just one vote. That's fine. Yeah, absolutely. So sternum is gonna be axial. So I always think about axil as the one that are the main bones in your body. So what type of joint is it? No knee joint? So if anyone wants to give, put, put their answers in, is it ball and socket? Is it condyloid or is it saddle or is it a hinge? So said hinge. So we have one vote for hinge. Anybody else thinks anything else? Yeah, most stuff that hinge as well. Any other quotes? No, you guys are quite shy. So that's fine. So, yeah, absolutely. Yeah. Hinge is absolutely great. So, yeah, well done guys. So uh like this, this is a question I could give you an exam especially for phase one. So they could just give you this image and ask you what anatomical plane is this like image of brain taken from? And you've gotta be able to say what it is. So anatomical plane just imagine this is sagittal, this is coronal, this is transverse. Absolutely. Sagittal is right. Very well done guys. Absolutely. Well done. So OK. So a very similar question has come up before in the exam of phase one. So what type of movement is this? Is this flexion? Is it extension? Is it from the knee joint or is it from the hip joint? We've got words, reflection of the knee? Absolutely. Yeah. 1000 guys. You're absolutely right. Spot on. Good. So, what is the blue, like blue thing? So, blue arrow pointing out. So it's not a blue arrow, but it's a blue box. So what is that showing us? Is it the vertebral from and transverse from, from ovale? Absolutely. We have a vote for vertebral Forman. Any other hurts? I might just be trying to misguide you guys. Is there anything else that I might think? Does everyone agree? No, you're absolutely right. Well done. So. No. Absolutely. Right. Well done. No. So uh yeah, I let's skip question 47 as well for now. Just quick, like quickly finish it. So OK, this is a harder question. Like they could ask you these types of questions as well in phase one. So they could ask you OK, like they usually don't, but sometimes they ask you like which one is true about like the brain and then you got to select one. So which one is true between ABCD or E which ones do you think is anatomically true? So it's midbrain medial to diencephalon. So you haven't really done diencephalon. But what diencephalon is, some people called cephalon, some people called Cephalon. It's absolutely fine. Either base line. So what it is, it's the central part very close to um essentially like thalamus, hypothalamus and stuff like that. So any ideas, anyone think a is the answer? Anyone thinks B is the answer CD or E? Yeah, absolutely. D is absolutely right. Good. Good. Because midbrain is just superior. So we have midbrain pons medulla so they could ask questions like these as well. So sometimes I want to tell you guys this so they could ask clinical stuff as well. So they're not gonna ask about any clinical stuff in phase one specifically, er if you're in phase one, but what they can is they can feature a question that uses clinical stuff. So you don't need to understand the clinical thing a lot, but you need to be able to answer the question accordingly. So they're telling us again, a patient that we have, they came to the hospital with a rash and they're diagnosed with shingles around the chest area. So shingles, you don't need to understand what it is. But essentially when you get chicken pox, the virus can actually stay in your dorsal root ganglia. And after like a a certain period of time, it could just in reinfect that nerve like that dermatome and that area is gonna be affected. But in shingles only that dermatome where the like virus is in the dorsal root ganglia is gonna be affected, the rest is not gonna be affected. So there are there are saying that is the chest area. So which one is affected C two T 4 L six or S one. So which of these is essentially uh damato supplied by uh like, like uh so sorry. So which one is a damato of the chest supplied by any of these options? So is it C two T 4 L six or S one? Absolutely fine. So if you guys have no ideas, that's absolutely fine as well. I think you might do. So. It's essentially T four. Why? Because we talked about T five in your chest, the rest are gonna be neck and your lower back. So it's not gonna be uh what we had. So essentially guys, um, so think about all of these stuff that we talked about so they could essentially ask, give you a picture as well and ask you a question on it, on telling us what type of, er, vertebra essentially, this one is gonna be. So in this one, the absolutely T four is absolutely right. Er, definitely, it's so well done. So which, what type of um a spinal like vertebra is gonna be, is gonna be this picture. So essentially they usually give you in phase one or like in all phases, they usually give you a clinical stem. So they tell you something like a patient came, like sometimes they're ridiculous. Like the doctor just told you to do a specimen. And then what was this So they're not testing you on the clinical side, they're just testing you the anatomy. So anyone have any a any ideas of, is this cervical, is this thoracic or is this Lumbar sacral coccygeal lumber? If you've got a vote for lumber, anybody else thinks anything else. I mean, you are absolutely right. Omar. So it is Lumbar very well done. Good because you can see the only one that has this rectangular process is Lumbar. Good job guys. So we've come to the end. I tried to tell you guys essentially what you need to know. So I didn't, I hopefully I haven't bombarded you with guys with new stuff. So uh it should be all the revision. So just look back at the slides, everything that there is there you need to know from my M MS. Anything that there is not, is not in their slides, you don't necessarily need to know much if you are in phase one, cos you'll go through them later on, which is gonna be fine. So guys, if you have any questions or anything you want to ask, you can put it in the chat, you can unmute yourself, ask and there is there a feedback form as well. So if you fill the feedback form, you're gonna be provided the certificate, you can put in your portfolio that shows you've attended anatomy sessions and it looks good. Um But yeah, so that's absolutely everything. OK? Thank you guys. I hope you enjoyed it as well. So make sure you, uh you do the feedback form as well. It helps us and it will help you guys as well to get a certificate as well. You're welcome guys. So, like, be honest in the feedbacks, honestly. So if you want me to do something differently, just let me know I'll do it differently. Absolutely. I'll, I'll make sure to upload the slides. You'll, you'll be notified, you'll get an email. Um You're welcome guys. So again, let me know if, honestly, if you haven't enjoyed it as well, that's absolutely fine. You can just put it in the chat or you can just say it in the feedback form if you want me to do it differently next time. Ok? You're welcome guys. Make sure you come along for our future sessions as well. We're gonna make sure to revise all the important stuff um later on as well and give you more overviews of what's gonna be in your exam as well. Hopefully. Ok, guys. So if anyone has any questions now is your chance, I'm gonna stick around, you can just unmute yourself, ask questions, you can put it in the chat. But, but if not, that's absolutely fine as well guys. It, it doesn't tell anything to me and relate it down and ask me if you have any questions about anything else in the course as well. That's absolutely fine. Feel free to chat. But again, this is gonna be my email as well. So if you have any questions. Um Yeah, good. No, no, that's a very good question. I'll go back to it. So always like if you wanna know how to get like the vertebra, so essentially how to identify them is a certain stuff to look for, look for the spinous process. So the spinous process is an indicator. Look for the vertebral body. So how big is the vertebral body? That's the second one, look through the foramina. So the f uh, the vertebral body is oval in lumbar and it's gonna be oval in, er, er, cervical as well. So you can see like this one. but in thoracic it's just gonna be a heart shaped so it's not gonna be completely over. So, uh that's how you can tell it away if you get anything like, uh thoracic, if you look at the, er, mens, thoracic is very sharp and the men is quite long. So it's long going down. But in, er, lumbar, it's very short and it's very, it has a high width. So it's actually, it's quite thick, like, uh it's got like a lot of width but it's not very long. So it doesn't look like a rectangle from here. But again, it, it kind of does because it's quite a wide and it's not quite lengthy. But if you had cervical one in Cervical, the easiest way to tell is that you will have a foramen on the transverse process as well. And in cervical, although your body is gonna be um o it's gonna be quite smaller because lumbar vertebra have to withstand a lot of pressure. So they gotta be bigger to be able to, with stand up. But in this case, like they're quite big, so they're gonna be lumbar. Does that make sense? Does that answer your question? Ok. You're welcome. If you guys any other questions, let me know. You can always emai email me as well. So here's my email address. So if you have any questions at any point, you can just drop me an email or let any of us know essentially and we'll get back to you guys. So hope you enjoyed it guys. I'll stick around for a few more minutes if anyone has anything, I want to ask just in case, but if not have a good rest of your evening, it's a very good question again. Do we need to know the individual functions? So, so their main function is essentially to protect the brain. So if they ask you how a voice of function is to protect the brain, but where they are located, you will learn and you will see them in the anatomy, anatomy lab. So they will show you uh where the dura mater is where the arachnoid is and where is the pr is. So pr you will not able to see the naked eye because it's just embedded on the surface, but you will certainly be able to see what Arachnoid and do what are. So the main important thing that you will encounter is there spaces between them. So, what is the space in between them? So, uh some of them have arteries and veins. So some of them, like we call it veins in brain duo and sinuses, like, not necessarily just veins, but again, how to collect uh essentially um the venous blood. And also, er, we're gonna have like where cerebrospinal fluid is gonna be. So you learn about it in more context, but again, you don't need to worry about it too much at this stage because you haven't done it. So everything that we talked about in the IM MS session is gonna be essentially, er, revisited. So, just to make sure you understand the basics that we talked about, everything else can just go through it again and again, when you learn about the module. But very good question. Does that make sense? Ok. Great.