Home
This site is intended for healthcare professionals
Advertisement

Immunology - Structure and principles of functioning of the immune system. The aging immunology. Immunological research methods

Share
Advertisement
Advertisement
 
 
 

Summary

This on-demand teaching session is relevant to medical professionals and will detail the basics of immunological cells and processes. It focuses on the differences between the innate and adaptive immune systems, identifying their functions, objectives and components true to the UK Medical School Curriculum. Attendees will gain an understanding of the cells and molecules at work with videos and diagrams to illustrate their roles and how it works to protect us from threats in the environment.

Generated by MedBot

Learning objectives

Learning Objectives:

  1. Identify the main functions of the immune system.
  2. Outline the cells involved in the innate and adapted immune systems.
  3. Illustrate how the interplay of cells helps to defend the body following trauma and against microorganisms or infection.
  4. Discern the differences between the innate and adaptive immune responses.
  5. Appreciate the roles of specialized white blood cells in the overall immune system.
Generated by MedBot

Similar communities

View all

Similar events and on demand videos

Advertisement
 
 
 
                
                

Computer generated transcript

Warning!
The following transcript was generated automatically from the content and has not been checked or corrected manually.

I bet on last week I'm a GP in Northwest London on the the moment I'm doing a masters in allergy at Southampton. Okay, so for those of you that during my last lecture, I like to start with this blood diagram. So this is a reflection of way or feeling you're at now In this moment, the idea is that you choose a number, maybe a person, an individual who you feel represents how you're feeling at the moment. You don't have to show that number with anybody. You just have to identify how you're feeling, Um, and and we'll move on. I'll give you a few moments to do that. Okay, I'm just a little bit about this. So the idea is that we learn best when we're connected with ourselves in our environment and whenever more connected with ourselves and work with an environment. Then when we know our emotional state, be a 21 sitting, besides, um, arms folded will be a 14 falling through the air. So there's no right or wrong answer. The idea is just that you know yourself and that puts isn't to learn. So let's learn today's aims at the outline of basic principles of immunological cells on processes. This is Thea Line that I got a very brief outline, um, from the medical school curriculum and most of them in in the Ukraine. And the idea is to fulfill some of these requirements. But are you using objectives from the UK Medical school curriculum on These are to identify the main functions of the immune system to outline it stills involved to appreciate undiscussed the roles of the in eight on the adapted immune systems and lemon components on. Discuss how this interplay of cells helps to defend the body following trauma and against microorganisms or infection. Okay, so what do the functions of the immune system? So you can see there's a few here, um, the primary one. A self recognition intolerance. The music still needs to be first and foremost able to recognize what what's itself in order not to attack that now we know and will cover in lectures to come where that goes wrong on when we get autoimmune diseases. But the prime intention of the immune system is not attack itself, so it needs to recognize itself first, what it does need to recognize the antigens so things that AH made and whether it be foreign bodies or as a result of trauma to the skin, but things that get into the system that will composes damage or some kind of irreparable future problems. So to recognize antigens. And there's a few of the cells that contribute to that and getting cells macrophage is, and B cells will cover those, um, in a few slides. It's also, too, to exhibit the immune effective functions again. Macrophages comes, here's and macrophages. I'll come to you in a few slides. These are the main on body of the immune system, and they engulf foreign material and destroy it. Other similar cells. It granulocytes in case cells and the B and the D zones as a result of identification on off foreign cells or possible, uh, trauma to the body. Compliments distant on antibodies. A released. So this is a cascade, which means there a domino effect of lots of cells and then you start to start off festival the in eight simunic system on the adaptive immune system, which will come to through starting off different types of the immune, different functions of the immune system. You have to regulate it. Otherwise it It kind of continues to go. It's a casket. So it's an accelerated release of cells. There needs to be some feedback in all different to eventually stop. And then finally some immunological memories required so that when this happens again what he remembers, it knows that actually, this antigen is a bad antiketogenic cause you harm this antigen is actually yourself. And it causes, you know, home analytical memories and important stepping stone in this process. So what exactly is the immune system? Okay, so it's a a collection of different organs within the body across the whole body. Uh, is that the question? No, I thought someone was speaking eso lots of different organs across the body and the aim is together. Collectively, they help fight against kind of outside invasion. So to start off at the top, we have the adenoids and the tonsils. Their function is to moisten, and long the air that we breathe in Onda take a sample of that toe antigen that's with it in the as a test sample of anything in the air being dust particles otherwise on exposed that to the lymph nodes which can be in the cervical region. Yeah. Oh, by the down, Is it a region on these lymph nodes are responsible for identifying is the self Is this antigen is it's gonna cause a problem. Do you have to react further down? You can see there's the thymus gland which is responsible for the maturation of T cells, which will come to, um, the guts, which is again a form of entry of antigen to the body's Oh, antigens gonna get congest into the body through the airways through the mucous membranes. So the mouth, the eyes, the nose or be ingested getting through the gut. Or, of course, I get into the skin. If it's local trauma or local damage, Um, there's a spleen was identified here, which filters through the blood and checks in all the sounds of the blood checking of these self. It is not self. It is. One, of course, is done. Okay, I'm just here. Does it just, um, and identified pay his patch. So this is for a tissue within the guts, which just means it's a mini factory of the producing, uh, particular B cells and three cells he sends. Okay, so Let's talk about the in eight verses. The adaptive response. So what is an immune response? There is a reaction, like we said to an antigen and outside attack on the body. It could be in a day, which means it's certainly specific, but it's always there. This is going to be our first response to any type of drama or a salt or damage. It's gonna be the inmates in the system, a more specialist and antigen specific responses. The adaptive response. And this comes a bit later and takes a bit longer. Uh, miss you, the adaptive can be broken down into cell mediated and mean responses or humeral immune responses to Humira. Was that just, um, the movement of cells by the blood where cell mediated? It's a cascade of different styles across different organs. It's not just the blood problem with it is Well, okay, so this is a chart that compares the in eight and the adaptive immune system. I'm not going to go through it in detail only to identify certain things. I think, uh, a relevant. So like we said before the in eight start straight away. So there's no lack phase. The response is immediate. Where's the adaptor? It takes a bit more time, at least a few days to start working. Yeah, and that's because if you imagine, there's an interplay of different cells turning other cells, what's going on? And that takes time, memory space, this process up when you brought to me in a logical memory, but it still takes a bit longer than the in a insistent does. Being eight immune system does not recognize the difference of self in on itself. When it sees that there's a threat to the body, it reacts. Where is he adopted? A new system. Thom recognized cell from non self. That's why it's most best test. Okay, um, in eight again doesn't have any memory cells where seductive does on D. It has a specific set of cells that it works through on their names. Here. We'll cover those in the next few slots, so this helps identify which cells and mostly responsible for inmates in which arm mostly responsible for the adaptive immunities you can see here, um, five million cells. Basic fills isn't awful with neutrophils the the fact assistant cells these ones can actually ingest on foreign material the mast cell, which is if you were with my With Me in their first lecture, is responsible for allergic and a topic reactions that the granulate since release system means on the natural killer cells. There's some overlap. Macrophage is, and under six cells can be a major under doctor and then adaptive and mostly B cells and T sounds. He sells the ones the exhibit immunological memory through the production of antibody. Where's T cells would use on react to chemo kinds or site of kinds. So these are kind of small little organisms that help and tell one cell. They're almost like transmission waves. Total one cell and another. This is what's going on around the forces. You got to go in and fight it. Just click it. This is, Ah, big table of a low immune cells together, and it just helps to show you. Actually, they're quite different, the ones that belong to the cells that belong to the inmates immune system and the ones that belong to the adaptive immune system. I don't want to get too bogged down into this because it's probably beyond. What you need to know is that medical students Except, of course, they all originates from stem cells. That's the building block of all these sounds. And if there had been married problems, then that's a lot Senate kind of treatment that causes toxicity, did bone marrow. And that, of course, causes problems through all of the selling it just involved in immune cells in the in function. Okay, I'm gonna, uh, stop talking for a few moments and show you this video which just helps toe emphasize the difference between a native adaptive immune responses. Now, um, I just need a few moments just, uh, basics of the immune system. Thean, you know, system one of the most complex parts of the human body. An intricate network of cells and molecules evolved over the course of hundreds of thousands of years to protect us from the dangers of the outside environment. So how does it work? First detected threat, summon help and launch a counter attack when a virus infiltrates a cell, for example, a cell lining our airway. The cell detects this is foreign and produces site a kinds messenger proteins to summon help via Fager sites, a type of white blood cell, and also help to contain the local spread of the virus from cell to cell, typically the role of interferons. Specialized white blood cells, called fake sites try to destroy the intruding virus by literally eating them up. The's first responders show up within minutes and make up the in eight immune system. It is fast to respond, but not precise, and it does. It's best to shut down and infection as soon as possible. The adaptive immune system is highly specialized, but much slower dendritic cells collect small fragments of the virus left over from the battles of Thean eight immune system and ferry. These two are lymph nodes Were highly specialized white blood cells called T cells are waiting. T cells are pre programmed soldiers, each one trained to target a specific invader. When a dendritic cell carrying a specific type of virus fragment shows up, the relevant T cell will divide many times to produce an army of clones. There are two main types of T cells Cytotoxic T cells recognize and destroy infected cells that harbor the virus and help a T cells boost the immune response by activating B cells to produce antibodies. Antibodies are specific proteins that block the structures that virus is used to latch on to and enter ourselves. Antibodies also mop up the viruses that are floating around within our bodies. Although T cells and B cells can take several days to move into action, they are incredibly precise on Do they remember after the virus has been neutralised and the army stands down, most specific T cells and B cells die off. But a small fraction stay alert patrolling the bloodstream and lymph nodes for repeat attacks. If the same virus attacks ourselves again, the's memory cells spring into action, activating the power of Theodore of immune system without the days long start up. This memory is the basis of how a childhood infection or a vaccination and need to lifelong protection. Okay, I hope you'll able to see that video. I didn't get anything this down, so I'm assuming Oh, I'm assuming you were able to see it. Yes, you just were full. Thank you. Okay, so that summarizes the difference between the adaptive on the native mean system. And it also helps us to understand a little bit about what cells are involved in each group. Um, so now that, uh, kind of basic science on dim you knowledge e. We're going to put it into action. We're going to go, uh, kind of talk about a case study on Put some of these principles into practical steps is still what happens and understand a bit more about what we see in the clinical context. So this little girl, Aaliyah, who's full, is showing her mother her cut hand. She's playing in the garden. I cut her hand against Thorn and it's bleeding and showing her mom. Mom, this is what's happened. And now I'm quite happy to make this interactive. You're welcome to, um, you yourselves until you tell us your thoughts or if you are. If you can keep on eye on the top, please and tell us what people would like to contribute. Please do that stuff at me. I think someone tried to speak. Oops, it seems nothing yet be run a daughter. Ah, the mother seems to be like a natural thing. The child maybe has a cut on. It's harmed or something. Yeah, what do you think is going on? So so comparing in mind that we're talking about immunology, Andi responses to threats from the outsides. So the in a guardian so there might be united pathogens in the cup on my infection? Yeah, look, actually infection? Yep, shifting. Think this is it kind of first. Besides, when you do have a A cuts, what's your what's the first thing you need to do? Just desert. Decide. But just to polish up your basic first aid skills and really, there's any form of breeding, she's leaning the womb. How is she taking the world? What is she doing? What, what two ways? Can you clean the wound? One of the two main ways you can irrigate it with water or saving excellent Well done. You can wash away the pathogens that might be otherwise invading yet. So what should wash it with just clean at water? I did not say like that was sticking. Especially young child, um, on what's the other way, which is what this mother seems to be doing. The antiseptic solution. No antiseptic solution. It doesn't look like she's got any bottles or anything Besides Christie Samuel has raised their hand doing to tell us Christie or anything for anyone. Uh, we have dustman that said that she's wiping it with her home? Yeah. Yeah, absolutely. So she wiping, which probably not. Not the best thing to do is there to squeeze the the wound. So if you squeeze the wound and your courage it to bleed what, you're irrigating it with its own lysozyme is and rich nutrient body that comes with the blood that has its own antibodies and own antiseptic. Yeah, which is what we can do when we're out in the open with nothing for hands. Yeah, so that's what moms doing. But if we move on, let's talk a little bit about the initial response to injury. So this involves what we've just spoken about being the inmates immune response. So the net immune response is a rapid response, and it's the one that takes place when you have a wound on to stop infection from happening. So you may have. I'm sure you all know about inflammation on the five cardinal signs of inflammation. Any anyone want to step in and tell us so there is no redness. There is a mobile president picture on swelling, babe. Wonderful! And one more, which I intentionally left left off the list. What's the last one? It's the yes. Well, don't loss of function? Exactly? Yes. So those air the initial stages of this is that well done? Yes, that's the last version. Thank you very much. That's that's that's exactly it. So in this little girl, what would take place first when she has a thorn cut on her finger on her hand is there's local inflammation. Yeah, What local inflammation is in terms of microorganisms, micro and vascular level is when there's an increased blood flow to the affected area. That's what leads to the heat, the swelling on the pain on the red nous. And the idea is that the permeability, the leakiness of those vessels increases so that you allow things to seep out those things. Those, uh, which nutrients on serum or even blood, has its own license. I'm in antibodies that help protect against infection coming end, but also it helps to protect the area from Coney. Further damage. Yeah, the swelling helps to build almost like a ah boulder to protect. It's in the middle where the actual wound is. And what does this happen? It happens in order to help start off this cascade, and that cascade involves clotting, which stops the blood from leaking out on starts off. A compliment. Domino effect on compliments of there. Routine transmitters that was mentioned in the video that helps start off the rest of the immune responses, including the adaptive immune response, which takes a bit longer to start. But that's much more specialist and that will be able to identify particular foreign bodies that can enter in through the wound that would be harmful to the little girl on attack those specific. Okay, any questions about that particular parts Know if anything comes to mind, please feel free to interact. Okay, so when we talk about cellular infiltrate, what do we actually mean? So if you imagine these, the wolves of the vessel yeah, on what's happening in on a micro level is that the white cells are rolling on the sides. They release inflammatory signals, which caused a little gaps or migration of white stars amongst other cells. We mentioned to compliment inside the kinds to migrate out of the vessels and into the surrounding tissue. Yeah, that's surrounding. Tissue will be closest to the wound, whether it be the hand of the finger on. That's what needs to us seeing swelling, redness, um, pain, loss of function. Uh, Onda heat. Okay, so in a month's that cascade of cells, we also see pathogens being released that there are two main pathogens. Um, we mentioned before macrophage is I'm a really important and dendritic sounds. They're important in the in eight and the adaptive. But we're talking about that in a just now. What they do is they engulf whatever the pathogen is that's got in. So that might be comin. Microorganisms That might be things normal skin flora that would have been on this little girl skin that don't cause damage in a small number. But may, if they're kind of a bigger number, can overwhelm the assistant and cause infections or things like staph aureus. Things like, um, coli, Another kind of less common things but stuff or is would be the Communist on the idea of this phagocytosis is student gulf. Those bits of microorganisms on DA try and reduce their number and hopefully get rid of them all together. So how pathogens that actually get past that in eight immune response. How are they seen by the adaptive system to the adaptive system which involves no I thought that it's a question Theodore system that involves more specialist cells. We'll break up. That's microorganism on present, little bits of it to other cells. Memory cells, namely memory, be sounds. And if that be so, has seen us and says, Yes, I know this. This is stuff or es We had it. And yet why and month X We need to attack this because this is going to cause a problem or they may react with. Actually, this is our self. This is a breaking up cell that's gone past. It's 60 days in and kind of circulation and needs to be got rid of it. As it's a self, it's safe. Don't react. Uh, other androgen presenting cells in addition to macrophages and the drip take cells are Langerhans cells. They're mostly found in the skin. Be so's on specific types of macrophage is which I think you probably don't need to know. The details are so Doctor, um, any response? It would take time because, But this is in the skin. These pathogens getting in through the skin on by the environment. They're broken down and presented to memory B cells. Most of them are killed off those that don't get killed. Awful. There's no memory B cell for them. Get trapped. Month migrated. They get transferred to the lymph node on bacon, circulating blood, which is where adaptive immune response continues to try and identify them and kill them all. Okay, so that'd be so we mentioned was a memory cell on in the video, and they spoke again about the the B cells. And the T cells are multiplying in order to be able to make more antibody to identifying this foreign body. So be so can break up into lots of different antibodies. But the main ones has shown here. So I gm, which remember, is the first antibody on that hits a foreign body or foreign pathogen. I d. I get a which is common released in tears and the serum that used the body through the mouth and so on on the gut. Uh, and, uh, down here, it must be a GI. Yes, IgE is the last one. Yes, sir. I'll fall and I'll 13. So that's a quick whistle. Stop store. Oh, that's a quick whistle. Top tour off the in eight and the adaptive immune responses and There's a quick summary here, and I'll take some questions. Uh, some reading is just comparing. Are learning objectives and identifying the main functions of it means is that system. So we talked about There's six different functions of the immune system in the beginning. So just in case you missed those, I'll be sure to send my slides over to the team. You can, uh, could make sure they're accessible to you. We outlined some of the cells involved in the immune system and how they were different between the in eight and the adaptive immune responses. And we discussed how the interplay of cells helps to defend the body following a trauma on against microorganisms. Um, so for you to get a little bit involved and try and reduce, um, the confusion about different types of cells and responses I wonder if you can, uh, but this hyper link in the chat. But I wonder if you could log on to hear I'm just tell us what one thing you will have learned. Oh, one thing you could have learned about, uh, this particular presentation. But the idea is that you take something away with you today. All you take something away with you that you can find out a bit more about. So I'm gonna put this hyper link and the chats, and so you should see it come up. Well, you can scan the QR code. We'll put this voting Covalin can. Okay. And while you guys do that, um, you're welcome to ask me questions on day. I will also bring up the word clouds for us all to see, because if anyone has a question, you can also put it into the chart. Bumps on. I can read it out for you if you like. Thank you. And I need to stop sharing for a second. So we do have a question from adjustment. She's asked, How long does the adoptive system take? Start reacting. Okay, well done. Good question. So that will. That's in the chart in one of my slides, anything from a few days to a few weeks. But generally it depends on how many times you've seen your body has seen that pathogen before. Yeah, because this is dependent on memory and the memory response of the immune system. But generally it won't start any any shorter than a few days. Thank you, Doctor. Thank you. Uh, can you see on your screen? Are whites slide with some colored words in the middle? Yes, we consider full. Okay. So as you're populating these windows on that word cloud, you can start to see kind of keywords come up. So it's great to see that you're all in the right place because, you know, you just come up more than once. So we've managed a achieve you something here could see adaptive in a in a It's immune responses, which are really it's such essential building blocks of the army. In response Onda lots of really nice and things that you've picked up into play between the in a gym there on the adaptive memory, refreshed, adapt to systems, all migration, which is great. I mean, this is not an easy topic to cover, and that's why I have made the talk intentionally quite short. And I haven't given you a coup this time. Unlike last time when I gave everyone who quiz because it's not so easy sometimes to get to the get in understanding of the building blocks behind all of this, but hopefully with the case study it makes a bit more sense on when we come on to do the next part of immunology will use. This is the building block to build on. More kind of on more specialists functions off the immune system. Thank you so much, Doctor. Uh, no problem at all. So let me, uh, go back to decide. I think that's probably all the contributions will get for a second. Uh, let me show, uh, my slides again. We do have, um, question another question, but I did buy that, um, of us. Is there a specific amount of antibodies produced by the B cells during the response to antigen? Is that fast before more is produced? So a good question, um, is everything. I mean, this is an escalated response, so it might be single digits, but very quickly it will turn into millions because of the way that the escalation goes. And so I'm sure we could find you a response. A kind of an answer as to how many? Exactly. But I think that I did. Behind your question is how how quickly does it go from a few to million's on. But all depends on whether you've seen this before. That's why Children, of course, answers well equipped to managing against and infections or problems of the skin when they fall, or even infections of the gut as adults are. It's all because of immunological memory. So a small number two start with single digits. Perhaps, but it goes up very, very quickly to answer your question. Thank you. Talk to her s. I just, um sorry to interrupt. Teo, Ask another question. But just what I found a really nice interactive website was this one themselves of the music system. And the idea behind it is to help you in track with different cells. Is building blocks. I mean, it's not It's not wonderful, but is, you know, it goes, it's a nice site to use just to help build on your understanding of the different cells and frosted you to fall away. Who's my professor at Southampton, where I studied my masters and is great as well. Finality teaching. You can access her, uh, her kind of YouTube videos and and slides a swell. Uh, I think that's it. Thank you so much. Like took up the, uh We did have one. Well, hey, a few questions are coming in now. Um, so the next question is from Mohammed, Uh, what side of kinds affect eye the antibody switch? That's a good question. Several. So I specifically mention it because it's again one of my slides. It depends which class of antibodies there. There are five big classes of antibody, um, the most commonly assigned one because it's an allergy. ATP is the class. Which of IgE, which is I'll for and I'll 13. Um, so they're interleukins, which are cytokine protein transmitters that make that switch. So there are specific ones that research tells us you're involved. We also know that there is such such as lots more samples, but they're not. They don't play a big role. Um, so in that slide, maybe I can show it to you now. Actually, it tells you exactly which ones responsible, and I think that will answer your question. They get. So I gm the reason there's nothing there is because that's the first antibody that's always present. But there's no specific class, which that's always around. But these are the ones under good class, which is average the interleukins on. But, uh, humankind's responsive. Thank you dot Um, we do have another question from son Scott. How effective is the delivery of vaccines nearer to the lymphatic system? Do they help in the adoptive different Cajun off T M V cells? Okay, excellent. Well done. Really good question. So, actually, where you give vaccines, it's not hugely hugely relevant because they have to be into the deep muscle tissue. And whether it's in the arms or in babies and their thighs, they will always be close to lymphatic chain. They're in the thighs. I'll be there, the pelvic and the inguinal changing and the arms. You know, it's a cervical chain in the exhilarate, and vaccines use a slightly different concept. They don't use the in a tin, you know, response because the whole idea of vaccines is that you give someone a memory of what you're exposing into so that in the future they don't respond. The full blown, they don't respond with the full blown infection. So if recovered 19 vaccine, you give them a part of it, or the mRNA, the membrane building blocks that were within the nucleus. You allow the body to react through the adaptive immune response, but with T cell mediated responses as well. They will store be so's and hopefully in enough number and with significant, um uh, memory in order to be able to respond what you do actually get the reaction. And so these are the adaptive immune response is also undergoing regular change. And for some things, like a live vaccine, Um, for example, yellow fever that's almost a lifelong vaccination will never need to have that again. But for things like the flu, because you're exposing someone to killed vaccine or part of a deactivated vaccine, that response won't last for much more than we think. 6 to 12 months. And that's why you have to keep going with the vaccines. And the idea is that you're building time of after time. You're building on the immune response in order to give someone sufficient mineralogical memory so that when they do actually have the full blown infection, their body is able to react quickly and give them the the body processes in. Want to be able to kind of compartmentalize it and kill it off before it causes damage to the body. Yeah, I hate that. Answers your question. Thank you, Doctor. We do have another question for medulla, Um, other ways we can hold on the hour. So are there any ways we can harder or temper our immune system in a non pharmacological way? Yes. So again, a really good question on there are lots of ways, and this touches on what I'm explaining in our last talk. The the idea of building up your adaptive immune response is that you are exposed to as many different on pathological foreign substances or potentially effective organisms as possible. Eso the hygiene hypothesis says that actually, we need to be getting kids to be playing with farm animals, playing with mud's playing with things that we thought actually would be a problem to you. You know, in the olden days, were really worried about typhoid and other things when you had an injury on back sedated everyone under the sun against it. But nowadays we're saying, Don't do that. Go and play play with the months Mud's classrooms are coming out of nowhere. But we want to encourage everyone to expose themselves as much as possible to the pathogens that are within our environments, because in that way you are in directly indirectly building up your immune system. And by the same token, we always encourage young Children, particularly infants, um, to have infections. Actually, it's a good thing if you've got a viral infection after viral infection. Um, there are lots of research papers that suggest three or four infections under a year goes a great way and to helping to defend you against ATP. You know, a topical diseases like aspirin and examine the future. So, actually, we need to be exposing ourselves in order to train our immune system and give it lots of practice so that when another covered 19 pandemic all forbid pits is our bodies are actually well prepared for it. Thank you very much. Okay. Yes, I think it did. They just said thank you. We do have another question from a bottle again. Why? There's on biologicals more at risk of infections that dust this dump in our immune response. Yes, Absolutely. Absolutely. So for those of you that aren't clear, that biological medication works to try and, uh, destabilize the immune system because we found that new system is either auto immune or it's dysregulated and starts to attack some to the idea with biologicals. a very specific type of medicines that active ivory specific pathways in the immune response to dump in that down. And so, by that very nature, it will not let kind of the full, uh, for potential of the new system work because it is dampening different parts of it down. And that's always been very careful with the launch of the vaccines, typically with covered 19. We've been very careful, Teo, to say people who are on biological medication or toe hang on until certain specific information from the trials is released in that this is not going to harm. And actually the studies have shown that to vaccinate is much, much safer than to be vulnerable. And even if it's not kind of even if it doesn't quite work in the way that it was supposed to, the vaccine was supposed to work. That's okay. You have derived some benefit from that has run so that if you do on contract covered 19, your body has got some capability to fight it. Think you talked? Oh, um, there is another question. Is it true that the appendix is a lymphatic organ? What issue? Okay, well done. So good question. So we're not really sure. We think probably it's a lymph origin because it's an appendage. So it's a spare parts that's just dangling away there in between the small and large intestine. It does seem to have some lymph tissue on that's been seen a histology because that inflames, Uh, and that's the cause of dependence itis. But in different people, there's different amounts of lymph tissue, so they're not quite sure. Probably, it's remnant of something that was more useful to us in older days. Maybe parasitic infections. We're we're profound, and that's why it developed. But the wonders of the human body are that we adapt, just like a reductive adaptive immune system adopts, um, the body in in a hole in kind of in the the biggest sense sense to change the way it, uh, functions on gives bigger responsibilities to those organs that actually have a bigger part to play in the general. Come up, keep it the body. So probably yes, Onda. Uh huh. To be honest now, it doesn't really matter because it looks like it's it's on the way out. So it's yes, is the less relevance now, but it's not active lymph tissue. If that's what you're asking, it's not actively involved at the moment. It's just, uh, after you got think, Doctor, uh, we do have another question. Sorry. Um, how do you I hear a friend there TCM or other similar systems of natural immunity really help cellular level. As there are so many scientific papers out there on the cellular level, it's not clear in comparison to have vaccines work. Okay, If I get any of what you said, how do you prevent it? CC Oh, yes, I see it sounds cover money. I see the Yeah, this is no Yes. Okay, wonderful. So that's a really, really important thing to note eso I'm never one. And I think this is something that many kind of newer generation health professionals feel that we should never kind of dispel or disregards at medicines off former generations or or particular groups, but because actually, that has such a wealth of knowledge and of experience in the trial of error and trying and error, which is not too dissimilar to Western medicine anyway. But there's been a lot of evidence that are usually your video. I can't even pronounce it that's and this type of medicine on do other kind of more traditional and herbal medicines. You know the idea behind using turmeric or Olivera in response to other things. I mean, it's a huge wealth of information. Um, it seems a Zoe's. There are very specific antiseptic properties within these different groups of herbal, uh, ingredients. There have been studies that look at what exactly it is that makes the body react, and it seems that the oh, that's reaction is quite ethnicity specific on Go, for example, groups of people in a particular country where maybe they have a particular practice and use. Let's say turmeric, for example, may have adapted. So actually, the antiseptic properties of turmeric heightened are even more valuable because it's we're not sure if it's used more regularly. The body is more exposed to it, and it remembers that reaction or other evidence for it's it's It's validity. But something seems to work. Onda Uh, when something seems to work, it sticks on D. Actually, that is evidence in itself, but it's helpful. There will never be many scientific papers out there about this type of medicine because a lot of you know purely pure. Scientists won't acknowledge that this is times that I'll say this is because of kind of the placebo effect or some other mechanism, whether that's true or not, you know it's not for us to judge, but if it works, it works. So you won't ever find a lot of scientific paper is out there. You'll find sometimes, um, controlled trials or comparison studies where they look at one method of using something against something else on do. Sometimes that can show a lot of helpful information. But just keep your scientists. I don't think we'll find that kind of, uh, pointing the studies out there. Thank you very much of the, um we do have another question. Thanks. So what? We're waiting on a lot of these questions that the last question is sorry. Are you familiar with final in all meds? Used to strengthen Sinus go home response. Any idea regarding the mechanism Been quite reviews about this. Okay, Eso I really wish I could help, but actually, I don't know about find the men. It seems a really specific medication that you're asking about. Um, that probably had more, more kind of the knowledge on experience with an idea. And I mean, there are a lot of so generally speaking, there are lots of medications or, like we said, trouble alternatives that are you shown to help strengthen the finest gland or help this the immune response or help in some form or other? The thing is, these these generally I found, like I said before, to to be helpful to a particular group of people. But not they're not all around cures or around help for everyone. And it's not clear why that is, because it would be much easier to have. You know, one answer fits all, but, like were so different on the outside, we're starting to find out that actually were quite different on the inside as well and different groups of people who respond to different things. Um, so I don't know family. And I'm afraid I can find out for you. Um, that, uh, my feeling is that it may it may promote some improvement or some change of response to the pharmacist gland, but it won't. It wouldn't have been enough evidence behind it. I I think for it to be mainstream. That's, um on. But I can certainly look it up and I'll send the team what I find. Thank you. Yes, I think they are interested in that. So that would be great. I think that's all of the questions on the chart. If there is any other student that would like to only themselves and ask question, you can go ahead and do so. Uh, if not, then I guess that concludes the questions. Okay. I'd like to think that's a little one second. Thank you so much, Doctor. Spending the extra time answering one of our questions. The students are also very grateful. They're all thinking you in the trap. That was a great lecture. If anyone has anything else to say, you can do so now. Thank you for your time, Doctor. Thank you very much. Thank you for the really stimulating discussion. You know, it's such a pleasure to hear your questions and have some interaction. You know, it really shows great thinking on a lot of mechanism behind kind of questions, Joe. Actually, a lot of death in depth understanding of the bigger picture. Not just the immunological mechanism. So so well done. And thank you. Thank you so much. Like there was a pleasure having you, uh, just for the students. The seven. PM lecture Husband cancelled, but do staging for the timetable that will be sent out for tomorrow later on today. Um, we will. We do have quite a few, uh, lectures boat tomorrow. Well, thank you again, Doctor. Thank you very much dot care. Guys like his energy. Thank you so much. Thank you. Bye.