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Can you see my screen, doctor? Yes, I can. Yes. Thank you. No problem. Because the lectures are recorded. I think we should just start anyway and see what happens as you go on. You know, Doctor, we can start, and I will wait for people. We'll see how it goes with people. Dream. I don't know if you know that your meted. Oh, sorry. I was just saying that there was something on the chat that there was the other other lecture was running late or something. Oh, yeah. The lectures ended. Now I'm sure the book again anyway, so they can always catch up the vial recordings. Okay. Perfect. All right, So today's immune. Today's, um, lecture is on immunization programs. Um, and the objective is to learn. Um What? Um, the immunization programs are how they work. Um, and also, um, what they would, um, sort of, you know, what are the immunization programs that were kind of normally looking at, um, in, in, in, in, in, in the United Kingdom. So, uh, and how we improve uptake. So let's see where we get to. Okay. Next slide, please. Thanks. Okay. Okay. So, basically demonization programs. Um we need to know what is a vaccine. Um, now we probably are very familiar. And more recently, with the pandemic, the word vaccine has become very, very popular. Um, some, some where people call it the jab. Many countries have Children's in Children immunized, pregnant moms immunized. Um, so vaccination in many ways starts, um, from basic sort of start of life. Really? Um, so what? Our vaccines, vaccines? They are not medical drugs as such, um um, um, and and and and they are the The reason they're different to any medical drug is the fact that they are designed to prevent a disease rather than treated. So when you take an antibiotic for your respiratory condition, it'll help you to get better, because it will kill the bugs that's causing the infection, whereas a vaccine will prevent the disease from happening. So a vaccinate for respiratory syncytial virus will help immunize Children and babies, um, from getting respiratory or sensitive vital viral infection. However, when they have it, then they need treatment and medication. Um, to get them better aware the infection can be acted on by antibiotics. How do they work? So they do this by from priming a person's immune system to recognize a specific specific disease causing bacteria, virus or other pathogen. And it basically is kind of, um, very, very clever signs whereby the the human body has got an immune system and would be, um, make the immune system think is that they have had exposure to a particular, uh, type of, uh um, uh, protein or type of, um, uh, immune immune, uh, system. And what that does then is it develops memory cells within the body, and these can last years or in some cases, lifelong. And this is why vaccinations can be so effective in stopping people from getting sick rather than waiting until the disease occurs. Because when the disease occurs, that's a little bit too late. Um, and if you can avoid people from getting the disease in the first place with the vaccinations, that's the most important thing. Um, so the second thing is that vaccines by nature tend to be biological products through it rather than chemicals, like most of our other drugs. So this not only means that the process involved in making them are usually more complex and more expensive, but also they tend to be less stable than chemicals and more vulnerable to temperature changes. And that's why it's quite crucial. So if you remember, if you go to your pharmacist, you take your You get a prescription for amoxicillin because you've got a respiratory infection or some kind of infection and you go to your chemist, they take it off the shelves. They give it to you because it can stay in normal temperature. Whereas vaccines are pretty delicate sometimes and they need to be preserved in, um um, subsidy with temperatures in fridges which might not be always conducive to the kind of running the vaccination programs. So if you remember the time of the pandemic, we had the two main contending vaccines. So we had the Pfizer vaccine, and then we had the AstraZeneca vaccine. The Pfizer vaccine was pretty unstable, if not kept in the right room temperature, uh, in the right breathing temperature, and then it had to be taken out. It can only stay out for a certain amount of time, and then it was going to become inactive. So it wasn't the best vaccine covid vaccine for the Third World country, where, um, it is very difficult to maintain temperatures. So therefore, it's important that the vaccines are kept at the right temperature as well, because they're made of biological, um, uh, sort of stuff, which is different to what antibiotics and may do so therefore, about vaccines need to be refrigerated to keep them in a specific temperature range. And the type of vaccine will determine how low a temperature the vaccine needs to be stored at, um, most vaccines are stored at our refrigerated or frozen. Um uh, but there are always the thrive to trials to try and see if we can get vaccine that can be stored at room temperature so that it can be given with much less restriction. Next slide, please. Okay. I've just realized I don't have my camera on. Okay, I've got my camera on back to I can't see myself. That's okay. Um, okay, So how do vaccines work? So, vaccines prime the immune system to detect a particular virus or bacteria by showing it's a harmless version of a pathogen or part of it. So it's much much like giving a bit of a Yeah. I mean, there's some examples in this in the slide sort of a black blonde. How? Giving a rag to sniff. So you know, there's detective dogs. You give them something, um, and they go and sniff things out. So this is almost like a kind of inserting a bit of protein. That is kind of, uh, it's not potent. Um, but it can go in inside the body and can generate the immune system to start to look for any bacteria. Um, that it it can then start to gobble up and and eat up so that the person doesn't so the so. The person doesn't develop the disease because the action is happening before that. So they typically do this by stimulating the antibodies, which are proteins made by our bodies to fight the disease. And so this can then stimulate the part of our immune system called the T cells. This is basic premise for how all vaccines work precisely how they achieve, and they can vary significantly. So the T cells, if you forget everything, just remember, this is what vaccines are doing. The vaccines are stimulating the T cells inside our body, and and they are then going away and and making sure that there's any when they were exposed to any bacterial virus. Um, then the T cells are actively destroying them. Some vaccines involve introducing a whole but inactivated or whole life but shortened version and therefore safe version of a German to the body, while others contain only specific part. So some vaccines are live very, very, very few of those alive now, most just contain a single protein, um, probably surface antigen. So in the case of the covid vaccine vaccine, we just had a little service, um, surface antigen or the surface protein that was just being injected into our bodies. In all cases, the aim is to get specified antibody generating particles or antigens. And these are, uh, such as protein found on the pathogen, and and so, basically, then they trigger the big immune reaction, which then helps to prevent the person from developing the disease. Um, so basically, when the vaccine goes in, then the cells in our body are like factories, and the factories start to produce all the antigens, which then body then reacts to, and so therefore, you develop an immune system that has got memory. Um um uh, to kind of fight the disease once you come in contact with the next slide, please. So why should I get vaccinated? So we've now got vaccinations for most of the infectious diseases that cause significant mortality and morbidity in our population. And this has been through 50 years of research. Um, and it's it's an amazing discovery that we've got. So vaccines protect us from serious diseases, and some can also help to contain, um, uh, sort of contain the spread of disease. So again, going back to the pandemic that we've just most recently had with the covid the vaccine, the covid vaccine help us not only to prevent people from getting the disease, but it also prevented from halting the spread of the disease. So we were able to give it to lots and lots and lots of healthy people. So that meant that the people were immunized. That means a person to person spread of the covid vaccine couldn't happen. We use the vaccine, uh, for lots of outbreaks. So, you know, hepatitis A hepatitis B outbreaks. Um, some of the meningococcal outbreaks where where we give healthy people who have been in contact with, say, an index case was infected um, the vaccine Just to make sure if they're vulnerable, that they've got antibodies within the system, Um, that can prevent them from developing a disease. Um, so many of us received these vaccines for a measles, meningitis, pneumonia as a routine childhood immunization. And in many countries, I think all worldwide this and W h o has got a big program. They've got childhood immunization programs in every country because we know that the first five years of the first one year of a child's life their most vulnerable. So they do have some antibodies from their mom. And so that's why it's important for me mom to have all the relevant vaccines while baby is on board. Once they come out, babies are pretty vulnerable because they have to live in the world for a little while to get, um, immunized. So the first five years is very, very important. So we make sure in every country that there is adequate important childhood immunization programs which protects them the Children, um, from having mortality and morbidity from some of the very common, um, infectious diseases. So this is elected many diseases actually becoming less common or even eliminated so some people must have, uh, some diseases have potentially to be eradicated. So small. Small pox was very, very rampant infectious disease. But fortunately again, with with vaccination, we were able to eradicate smallpox in 1980. But because most can exist in the animals or in the environment, for example, in the soil, the Post, they pose an ever present threat in which is why it's important that the vaccination coverage remains high. So what we tend to say is over 95% of the population having the immunity helps to keep down the viral. The viral or bacterial load, which means the person to person spread doesn't occur, which means less people get infected. And wherever we see vaccination levels drop, either because of hesitancy, where people don't want to take up the vaccine or when services are disrupted. Um, these deadly diseases are quickly coming back on the rebound. So we're seeing that post covid in the United Kingdom. Um, we're seeing outbreaks of measles. We're seeing outbreaks of diptheria because we've had about two years of disruption whereby babies were born. They probably didn't get the timely vaccine. Some people didn't take up the vaccine for all sorts of reasons, our health services were disrupted, which meant that we've we've got a situation where got Children, babies or even adults for that. Well, older, older Children as well, who have not quite got the immunity for some of these infections. And once they come, once they're being exposed to those infections, they're getting easily infected. So the life saving power of vaccine is a major reason why global health organizations like Gabby are working hard to get vaccines out too low resource areas where vaccines are either unaffordable or inaccessible. So the thing is, um, if you've got, um, some time Look up, Gabby. Gabby, um is a national international organisation. Um, uh, for vaccinations and immunisation. Um, and they help with spreading the immunization programs programs all across the third World, um, saving in countries. But the risk of infection diseases low. Getting vaccinated is still important in order to protect the vulnerable people who can't be vaccinated, such as people with compromised immune systems. So, for example, people who've got cancer or HIV have got already compromised immune systems, so we know people from HIV and cancer are more susceptible to respiratory um uh, infections. Um, uh, so we make sure that they are prioritized for the flu vaccine in the winter. So things like that, which we can make sure that vulnerable people are well protected. Even though, um, the rates of HIV are not as as as, uh, as high as we had them in the eighties. Um, So next slide, please. So how are vaccines? Texted. So the big thing that I have, uh, so I'm a public health consultant. Um, apologies. I'd introduce myself. My name is Sangeeta Chakrabarti. Have a public health consultant. Um, and I lied on Children. People in maternity in, uh, three towns Bedfordshire Gluten and Milton Keynes in the, um in in the United Kingdom. Um, and, um, one of my areas of work is to make sure that all of our Children, particularly vulnerable Children, have all of their immunization. Um, and often I get questioned by mom's by carers, um, by people, as in what is the importance and why do we need to get, um uh, why do we need to get vaccinated? Um, and and all I'm healthy person, doctor. And why do I need to get vaccinated? So The important thing is, um, that we need to assure the people we look after about the safety of the vaccine's development. So when the covid vaccine came on board, we had quite a lot of human cry. There was a whole lot of, um, uh, news propaganda about sort of, um, about the fact that the vaccine wasn't safe enough. The vaccine's going to cause long term morbidity in people. And yes, we did see some side effects. And yes, we did some long term effects. Uh, and some people who reacted the vaccine that does happen. However, majority majority of the I had a positive positive outcome had positive immune built up. And what we were able to do then is cut the infection spread in the community. So the important thing to remember on around this is the vaccines that are developed passes through huge amount of tests before they become more available to the public domain. I know in the covid period, I was being asked constantly. Covid was a new disease. So how come we had vaccine so quickly? The answer to that question is, we were almost there with with 10 years of research because we had had pandemics with similar type of viruses. So we're almost there with 10 years of research, and we now got our cutting edge research to absolutely scale up, um, sort of the conversations, um, also the technology that can rapidly develop vaccines and rapidly test them. And we were able to do that because the whole world came together. Every scientists on the world dropped everything they did and picked up this one task of developing a vaccine. So they put the so our researchers have found a promising candidate. Once they found a candidate, they found a vaccine. They put them through preclinical studies, and if the vaccine passes through that test, then it goes to Phase one trials. And then it's given to a small group group of people to confirm its safety and humans to see if it triggers an immune response. And then the Phase two trial vaccine is given to larger groups, usually high hundreds of volunteers to see whether the immune response is triggered. And it's strong enough whether there, uh, there any side effects in this phase. The volunteers are divided into two groups in one which they get the vaccine and one they don't get the vaccine, as in, they just get a placebo. Um, and in phase three trials, the vaccine candidate is given to thousands of volunteers again divided into two groups. As for phase two trials, So as you can see, the years and years of research goes in before a vaccine is deemed to be safe. So here at the bottom, you can see a little bit about the covid vaccine development. So during the public health emergency, so, like the one that we had covid 19, where no licensed vaccines or treatment existed, vaccine candidates were licensed for emergency use. Um, and what it was is that if they made it nearly to the end of the phase three trials and evidence suggested that they were safe and effective enough. And that's exactly where we were, uh, during the pandemic. And so we got emergency use of those vaccines because we know we were almost sure that they were safe enough to be rolled out. And it was a global pandemic, which was, uh, we were losing people, um, all over the world to a virus that was not known to us. So it was important to get something out there to halt that. So the the the benefits completely outweighed the risks. Next slide, please. Okay, so what ingredients do vaccines contain? All vaccines contain active ingredients, called antigens, that trigger an immune response to viruses bacteria, other pastoral pathogens. But in order to work well, it's important that they also contain other key ingredients to keep them safe and effective. The main ingredient in most vaccines is water. Because, remember, we have to use vaccines in little villages in Somalia. In Little Village is, um, in India, in little towns in, um, Siberia. So we need something. We need a medium that is universally available so most vaccines have the one ingredient and that's water. They also continue multi fires and stabilizes to ensure that the other ingredients remain suspended in the solution and are protected against the effects of temperature changes during transportation or storage. Some vaccines. We also contain an adjuvant, a substance designed to boost the immune system to the antigen, while for vials of vaccine containing more than one condos and the addition of a preservative prevents the growth of harmful bacteria fungi, which maybe introduce when each dose is extracted. So remember, we take one while, but we take a vial, and then we we get eight or nine or 10 or how many ever? Um, sort of, uh, vaccine doses out of that. But if in between, um, it gets contaminated with bacteria, then we're going to be doing more harm because we'll be introducing, uh, an infection, uh, into the person that we're vaccinating. So it's important to have it multiplies and stabilizes, and also at students so that the vaccines are stable. Um, they don't get they don't get contaminated. But they're stable enough to to be in an active, potent stage before they are injected and and and can work. Then, after they're injected given, for that matter, not all vaccines are injected. As you know, some vaccines are given. Um, orally. Some vaccines are given know nasally. So, um, there's various ways of giving vaccine. Um, Also, vaccine ingredients are included in only a very, very tiny amount, with some found naturally in our bloodstream. Anyway, so that's why those phase one phase two phase three trials are important because, you know, I get these questions, doctor, but I'm allergic to so many things I might be allergic to some of these vaccines. And the thing is, yes, that could be the case. But then in the covid period, we do that under really, really safe and and gave small doses to just make sure that you're not allergic. And then we had, um it depends and other things around, we made that you were in the hospital so that you would not have an anaphylactic shock. Um, but most of the time, we found most people did not have any allergies to to the the vaccine mediums, and they were fine in in turn, they developed their, um, community and and they were protected from from covid. Um, so the list of whatever is in a vaccine vile is written onto the onto the container, Um, and and it's again subjected to rigorous assessments before they can be included. This ensures that the vaccine ingredients are safe in the quantity is used with systems in place to monitor their safety on an ongoing basis. Okay, next slide, please. So how are vaccines made? So vaccines are made up of a whole bacteria or a virus or parts of them often a protein or a sugar, and these active components of vaccine are called antigens, and these are the ones that trigger an immune response once they're in the body. And since vaccines or biological products, most conventional violent vaccines need to be grown or biological on biological materials such as chicken, egg or influenza vaccines. Mammalian cells with hepatitis A vaccines or east for hepatitis B vaccines. So they have to be actually cultured, sometimes in life cells. Although having said that, the vaccine technology is moving on quite rapidly. And and more recently we've got RNA vaccines, which are cutting edge vaccines, and we'll we'll hear about them in a minute. So the the the process of developing vaccines is laborious. It's slow and and it kind of takes a long time for us to see that so that there is some kind of anti gin, um, reaction that that that is going to be suitable for the human body. With the flu vaccines, for example, the live virus is injected into an embryo nated egg, and then once the virus has replicated, the viral material is collected, purified and then inactivated, and that becomes the vaccine. So yes and Maybe some embryo nated egg was used in the first instance. But what actually is injected? Um, inside us. Um, as the flu vaccine is nowhere near, uh, an egg or or or or or a live cell at all. Um, it's kind of an extracted bit of protein, which is called the anti gym. And again, um, in my world, in my world of work, I get asked, So I get asked, Oh, do you, um, you know, Doctor, But I am a vegetarian, and I I don't want anything. That's animal in inside me. And the answer to that question is, what's going inside you is probably it's got no animal traces at all, because what it may have been developed in in in some Petra dish somewhere. But what it's been masked by the time it's been extracted and mass manufactured. What's in going inside is basically a deep activated bit of protein, Um, in in a bit of a soluble solutions. It probably doesn't have any of that anyway, So so many people, we needed to reassure them when, when they ask, ask these questions that the vaccine development process, although it takes long, laborious process is in the end, doesn't probably have much or at all, any kind of animal protein other than the antigen that we're we're interested in. And the newer are any vaccines can be produced from a DNA template. This can be much cheaper faster than the conventional vaccine production. And and this is now the cutting edge technologies. As you could see in the new in the covid pandemic, the Pfizer vaccines could could be mass, uh, manufactured through some of the RNA vaccine techniques. Um, and that is kind of growing more favorable. Now, next slide, please. Yeah. Okay, so this is very important, and this is important to understand as well. So, um, the types of included back the types, So there are different types of vaccines. Okay. And and as I said, some are very well known and has been established for many, many, many, many years. Um, and and some are kind of, uh, more, more recent. So, um, whole virus vaccines could be inactivated and live attenuated vaccines. Um, genetic. Uh, there is also genetic material. MRNA vaccines. There's subunit, recombinant polysaccharide and conjugate vaccines, toxoid vaccines and viral back to vaccines. So So those are the different different types of vaccines. So let's talk about the whole virus. Vaccines. So many conventional vaccines use whole viruses to trigger an immune response. Live attenuated vaccines such as measles moms and remember rubella vaccines use a weakened form of a virus that can still replicate but are unlikely to cause the disease. Inactivated vaccines such as hepatitis is a use. Viruses who's genetic material has been destroyed, sometimes referred to as killed, so that they cannot replicate. So basically what we're doing here is we're taking a virus. We are in activating, so it's not going to be potent. It's not going to be active, uh, and developed infection, but we're taking that virus, and then we inactivating it, and then we're injecting it and which that makes. Then the body recognizes that there is a virus in the system, but the virus is actually not going to produce the infection. But the body doesn't know that the immune system kicks in lots of T cells. Lots of antibodies. Um, they start to develop memory cells, which means that in future, if the body comes in contact with that virus, then the body can gobble it up before it even starts to get infected. Um, so So that's that, then. Nucleic acid vaccines use genetic material either DNA or some form of mRNA to provide cells with instructions to make the antigens. Some of the new covid 19 vaccines are using messenger RNA RNA technology. So this is really funky. This what this What this does is that we inject the vaccine into the human body, they the d n a. Then, um it provides cells with it, basically instructs the body to develop the antigen, which then develops the immune system in the body. And and this kind of technology, as I was alluding to earlier, is becoming more and more prominent because it takes away that, um, sort of anxiety around. Oh, I'm not sure this vaccine is going to be suitable for me because, you know, vegan or or a vegetarian or my, um, my my religion suggests I can't take a particular animal protein. So now this new technology helps us to get away from all of that conversation and say, You know what? You know this has got nothing to do with any anything else. This is kind of a little bit of a signal going into your body, which is getting your body to produce the immune response. Then there is the viral vectors. The viral vectored vaccines also contains genetic material that give ourselves instructions to produce antigens. They use a harmless virus as the vector or carrier, which is different from one or the vaccine is targeting to deliver these instructions into the cell. An example is the Ebola vaccine. So with the Ebola vaccine, it's a viral vector vaccine, so it basically instructs the cells to produce the antigens. And I don't know if any of you are from the sub Saharan Africa. Ebola continues to be an endemic condition, but if you remember a few years ago, Ebola started to spread quite widely in the African continent, when we were worried about it becoming a pandemic, were were able to contain it because again, we developed this viral vectored vaccine quite quickly. Subunit, recombinant, polysaccharides and conjugate vaccines, so these are one or more antigen, such as protein or sugar, to trigger an immune system to the germ. Conjugate vaccines, for example, combine a week antigen carried by strong antigen to ensure a strong immune response an example of the recombinant hepatitis B vaccine contains a surface antigen. So all of us who are medics have to have our hep B vaccine, and those are conjure get vaccines. So basically it carries a week. Anti gin. Um uh, and it is carried by a strong anti gen. So basically, both goes in and then that it ensures that there is a strong immune response. So yet, every time your body is developing more memory cells more, UM, T cells and and and to make sure that if you ever come in contact with that virus again, then your body's immune and it doesn't get the infection. And then you got the toxoid vaccine. The toxoid vaccines As it is, tetanus vaccines use controlled amounts of toxin made by the germ. So if you get cuts and bruises, I mean particularly in the Third World, we always advise. Now the tetanus vaccine is given in childhood. Anyway, most most people are protected, but in certain countries they need to get. We need to get boosters, um, and and so what they do is they create the immunity to disease causing parts of the germ instead of the germ itself. That means the immune response is targeting the toxin is instead of the whole germ. So basically, um, the tetanus, um, releases the toxins to the body, which is the more potent and more serious of the conditions. So, basically, um, what the vaccine does is is the immune response is targeted to the toxin, or rather than the vac, rather than the actual actual bacterial actually, actual hole germ. And that's how it protects you if you got cuts and bruises, which which make make you susceptible to having, um, uh, tetanus. Then, um, if you if you have the tetanus vaccine, then of course, we were protected. You are not developed tetanus. Tetanus is a deadly condition. I've seen patient's with tetanus. It's not a pretty sight. Um, uh, we don't see that often anymore in, in, in, in the developed world, but in in in the in the in sort of the sub Saharan Africa and other parts of the world. It still is quite prevalent. Uh, and so the tetanus vaccine becomes very, very useful in those conditions. Next light, please. And the last light, I think on this one. So how do we look for potential vaccines. So how do we know? So we've got so many medical conditions. You know, we got a medical school for five years. We study lots of diseases. Um um and how to manage them and wouldn't simply just lovely if you had a vaccine for most conditions, and they don't have to. We don't have to. Um we don't have to, um um, keep diseases. So, um, so most communicable diseases that are deadly, um, and are potent have now got vaccines. How do we do? How do we develop vaccines? So scientists might look for vaccine candidates by first looking at vaccines that work with similar diseases. Or they might look through libraries for potential pathogenic proteins that could trigger a strong immune response. So it has to be a public health problem. So, you know, a bolus of the world. Tetanus is of the world. Measles of the world. Covid is of the world blues of the world. Keep taking lives away from us. Sorry. Bear with me. Um, it takes away, uh, lives from us. Um, every single day as we sit here and speak, so we know for sure it's a big public health problem. So what scientists do is look for potential solutions and potential vaccines. Um, to make sure that, you know, we we could we could cut that, uh, and and and and cut that spread And make sure that, uh, you know that that people are not getting infected, and that means that they they don't they don't die from it or or are left with life changing conditions. If pathogens evolve to form new strains, proteins that were once vaccine targets may no longer be present. And this may render the vaccine in effect ineffective. So, for example, one thing that you know is, um, um the the the vaccine the flu vaccine. So So my patient's asked me, Doctor, why do I need to have the flu vaccine every year? The reason is the flu vaccine is because the flu virus changes every a certain so that the vaccine that you had last year is not potent this year. So this year, um, needs a whole process, uh, of developing a vaccine that will help with the virus flu virus that's circulating, uh, this year, which you know would be slightly different from last year and again in different parts of the world. Different strains of the flu virus um, influenza influenza B circulate. So it's important that we get a vaccine that covers both and all across the world. So whole amount of research keeps continuing all throughout the year. So we're already kind of tracking, um, the flu vaccine now seeing how it's changing, um, to make the vaccines for next year. Uh, and and that process starts kind of. It's It's kind of a rolling process all the time. If pathogens evolved from new strains, proteins that were once vaccine targets will no longer be present, and this may render the vaccine ineffective. So what we don't want is a flu vaccine that's not working on on the vac on the flu virus that's in circulation. That that did happen to us in the United Kingdom two or three years back. We had huge amount of blow, Um, and and and one of the things was that the vaccine, uh, basically the the flu virus had had evolved even further. Um, and therefore the vaccine that we had, um, wasn't being effective looking for core proteins Regard against this, this process once took months or years. But now advanced bioinformatics tools part by supercomputers scan and analyze these proteins in days are sounds pretty techie, doesn't it? But believe you, me? I've been in these labs and and it's it's it's amazing to watch, um, the huge amount of work that goes in to save one life. We're also using artificial intelligence and technology and starting to use vaccines that could radically change the speed. Because, look, when we when we talked about before we have in the past, the vaccines were developed by working on animal cells. Um, working on some sort of, um, you know, Petrie dish is on work working on studying on small groups of people and seeing if there is, um, you know, uh, if there is any effect on it. But if we could use simulation, if you could use artificial intelligence and bypass those steps and and make them even, um, faster and stronger, um, then we would be able to generate vaccines much quicker. Be, you know, the global Uh, um, climate change and all of these other effects, um, that we've got in the world is saying that this likely could of more pandemics um, in the coming years, and to be prepared for something like that, we need to have more radical and neo technology that will help us to develop vaccines at a shorter speed of time. So, um yes. So there's a global database and that, and that's what the Gavi is. And so if you have, if you want to have a look inside, go to that. Go to those websites as well. Um, what I will do is I will send through Claudia, Um uh, the list of the immunization program that we've got in the United Kingdom and some important resources, which you might find helpful. Um, And you will find that, um, you know particular if you've got a particular interest in immunology um, an immunization. You might find those resources quite helpful. That's my last. Like, Claudia, I'll stop. I'll stop here and see if there's any questions and I'll try and dig out those other resources that I was talking about. Thank you, Doctor. If anybody has any questions, please feel free to a mute or post in the chat. I will be sending the feedback form as well and the certificate, so please feel free to a mute. Hey, we've got quite well. We've got about five people, four people. But that's okay. That's good enough. I I don't know why my camera is not working. Um, ladies and gents, um, let me know. Was this helpful? Was this something you were expecting, or was this, um was there something more you want to know about humanization that I didn't cover? You're pretty clear, Doctor. I was very helpful. Uh, it kind of relates as well to the courses, like, medical course to that we're doing for epidemiology to. Perfect. I've got some more material, Claudia, which I will send to you. Um, as soon as I can. Uh, I'm in a different place today, so I'm not being able to access all my, um, folders. But as soon as I get that, I'll email them to use. If you could also put them onto the platform. That be fantastic? Yes. No problem. Any links you said I will share, and all recordings will be posted in due time, too. Awesome. Okay. Any other questions? It doesn't seem like we have any questions. They were very clear anyway. And you took your time, so I think we've got to take home messages about vaccines. So thank you, Doctor. Sorry about my phone. I don't know what's going on. Give me two seconds. Yeah. Um, yes, I I think the take home message is, um, look on the wh your website and some of the resources that I'm going to, um um send through Claudia and And look also at the gabby website, so those are all free resources. Please go on there. The the slight set that I've used today was from one of those, um uh, references anyway, so you might find that helpful too. Perfect, Doctor. Thank you. Thank you for all your time as well. Have a good Christmas and New Year, ladies and gents and, um, we will see each other, Hopefully in the new year. Um, and give us enough feedback, uh, and stay safe wherever you are in the world and we'll be thinking about you. At least I will be thinking about you. It's been an absolute privilege and pleasure to do teach you all. Um, this term. I look forward to doing more lectures with you in the coming year. Um, stay safe. Stay in touch. and I'm just going to post my email address on, um, the chat box if anybody's got any, um, uh, late questions on this or other public health topics, And you want to, um, ask me whether you're doing your epidemiology lectures or anything like that? I'm always always here to help. All right. Thank you, Doctor. Thank you very much. Have a good Christmas and new Years too. And, uh um, term starts on the 23rd of January, so I hope to see everyone here again. Fantastic. Thank you. Everybody stay safe. Have a good Christmas and New Year wherever you are and stay safe. Take care. Bye. Bye bye.